Journal of Geographical Sciences >
Global virtual-land flow and saving through international cereal trade
Author: Zhang Jingqi (1982-), Associate Professor, specialized in GIS & RS application of urban governance. E-mail: daqi00@163.com
*Corresponding author: Zhao Naizhuo (1981-), specialized in GIS & RS application. E-mail: naizhuo.zhao@ttu.edu
Received date: 2015-05-15
Accepted date: 2015-07-31
Online published: 2016-05-25
Supported by
National Social Science Foundation of China, No.15CGL078
Copyright
With intense urbanization and sustained population growth, securing food production with limited land sources has increasingly become a pressing issue. Based on an analysis of international cereal (i.e., barley, buckwheat, maize, oats, rice, rye, sorghum, soybean, and wheat) trade and differences in yields of the cereal between export and import countries over the period of 2007 to 2011, we explore the great potential of land saving through the international cereal trade. By ‘land saving’, we refer to the reduced global total of lands required to produce a necessary amount of cereal when cereal is exported from a country with relatively large yield of the cereal to a country with relatively small yield of the cereal. Our scenario analysis suggests that international cereal trade would help mitigate the shortage of domestic arable land for many island countries (e.g., Japan) and countries in the arid Middle East and North Africa (e.g., Syria and Morocco). Furthermore, international cereal trade has the potential to generate ‘land saving’ of 50,092,284 ha of land per year, which is roughly the size of Spain. Drawing upon the definition of a similar concept - virtual water (
Key words: virtual land; land saving; land flow; international cereal trade
ZHANG Jingqi , *ZHAO Naizhuo , LIU Xingjian , LIU Ying . Global virtual-land flow and saving through international cereal trade[J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2016 , 26(5) : 619 -639 . DOI: 10.1007/s11442-016-1289-9
Figure 1 Imported virtual lands for the ten largest virtual-land-import countries |
Table 1 Net land saving for ten countries with the largest land saving through international cereal trade (ha/year) |
Country | Barley | Buck- wheat | Maize | Oats | Rice | Rye | Sorghum | Soybean | Wheat | Sum |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China, mainland | 428978 | -81671 | -88827 | 12896 | -63483 | 0 | -21012 | 25557987 | 36922 | 25781790 |
Japan | 431432 | 128429 | 6279733 | 33427 | 105190 | 38876 | 493419 | 2134916 | 1556441 | 11201864 |
Mexico | 37174 | 0 | 2552578 | 67634 | 121105 | 59 | 574826 | 2422318 | 474403 | 6250096 |
Morocco | 508002 | 1 | 2480014 | 611 | 1271 | 0 | 70869 | 282336 | 2794927 | 6138032 |
Algeria | 177007 | 0 | 738516 | 3328 | 53429 | 0 | 109 | 51 | 4311183 | 5283623 |
Venezuela | 22 | 0 | 362312 | 259 | 30788 | 1 | 275 | 64168 | 4631608 | 5089433 |
Republic of Korea | 15523 | 2524 | 1688240 | 1622 | 45090 | 3508 | 3693 | 722724 | 1064366 | 3547290 |
Spain | 204313 | 134 | 469809 | 24364 | -13070 | 72180 | 224056 | 1211139 | 1342817 | 3535743 |
Indonesia | 12.47045 | 1 | 261584 | 217 | 218708 | 1778 | 332 | 1281372 | 1561662 | 3325665 |
Nigeria | 161 | 346 | -1068 | 9 | 869775 | 0 | 7923 | -14962 | 2144898 | 3007082 |
Figure 2 Exported virtual lands for the ten largest virtual-land-export countries |
Table 2 Net land saving for ten countries with the largest land loss through international cereal trade (ha/year) |
Country | Barley | Buck- wheat | Maize | Oats | Rice | Rye | Sorghum | Soybean | Wheat | Sum |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
US | 17653 | -15496 | -5260252 | 777382 | -332477 | 72504 | -1048653 | -12613184 | -9089213 | -27491736 |
Australia | -1909820 | 232 | -2971 | -112716 | 6837 | -830 | -17183 | -212 | -7885973 | -9922634 |
Brazil | 108130 | -186 | -2048760 | -3014 | 9416 | 26 | -19919 | -9648151 | 2106069 | -9496388 |
Argentina | -314566 | 0 | -2120317 | -887 | -79277 | 6 | -301830 | -3414157 | -2697611 | -8928639 |
Canada | -512797 | -1443 | 145415 | -634845 | 95259 | -66811 | 1658 | -741034 | -6400894 | -8115493 |
Russia | -905298 | -2556 | -104323 | -1536 | 32739 | -26595 | -507 | 591841 | -6275804 | -6692039 |
Ukraine | -1767875 | -715 | -819118 | -4835 | 13319 | -15713 | -25763 | -240754 | -1897307 | -4758761 |
Kazakhstan | -329121 | -1269 | -521 | -3831 | -3027 | -497 | 1 | 4171 | -4221700 | -4555794 |
France | -811921 | 3145 | -600686 | -10832 | 73780 | -4268 | 6414 | 196389 | -2618306 | -3766286 |
India | -61129 | 371 | -1276268 | 2859 | -1088450 | -473 | -82869 | -21869 | 188562 | -2339266 |
Figure 3 Contributions of different cereals to global land saving |
Table 3 Virtual-land saving and land-saving efficiency for different cereals (ha/year for harvested area, imported virtual land, exported virtual land, and saved virtual land) |
Barley | Buck- wheat | Maize | Oats | Rice | Rye | Sorghum | Soybean | Wheat | Sum | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Harvested area | 52244089 | 2277652 | 163321757 | 10442451 | 159725031 | 5991368 | 42842243 | 98516364 | 220188925 | 755549880 |
Imported virtual land | 10898160 | 235887 | 30101106 | 1226827 | 10802834 | 447742 | 3793826 | 49257205 | 59719646 | 166483233 |
Exported virtual land | 8721120 | 143135 | 16262145 | 1051797 | 8144730 | 407500 | 1761535 | 30904124 | 48994862 | 116390949 |
Saved virtual land | 2177040 | 92752 | 13838961 | 175030 | 2658103 | 40242 | 2032291 | 18353082 | 10724783 | 50092284 |
Land-saving efficiency | 0.25 | 0.65 | 0.85 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 0.10 | 1.15 | 0.59 | 0.22 | 0.43 |
Note: Land-saving efficiency=Saved virtual land/exported virtual land |
Table 4 Changes of net imported virtual land in China from 2007 to 2011 (ha) |
2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barley | 220342 | 298505 | 465964 | 607120 | 552957 |
Buckwheat | -94986 | -71850 | -77311 | -95506 | -68703 |
Maize | -944805 | -36605 | -8739 | 264705 | 281310 |
Oats | 1730 | 9410 | 14739 | 19229 | 19373 |
Rice | 129463 | 99606 | 65213 | 35975 | -12840 |
Rye | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Sorghum | -60852 | -28967 | -7329 | 8834 | -16744 |
Soybean | 20885180 | 21711957 | 25891107 | 30847583 | 28454109 |
Wheat | -489017 | -19756 | 186814 | 256646 | 249923 |
Sum | 19647056 | 21962301 | 26530458 | 31944586 | 29459385 |
Table 5 The 11 largest virtual-land flows (>1,000,000 ha/year) and land saving generated by the 11 individual virtual-land flows (ha/year) |
Barley | Buck-wheat | Maize | Oats | Rice | Rye | Sorghum | Soybean | Wheat | Sum | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
From the US to China | Produced in the US | 0 | 9 | 94321 | 0 | 300 | 169 | 449 | 6755511 | 74733 | 6925492 | |
Produced in China | 0 | 10 | 157551 | 0 | 350 | 106 | 488 | 11369400 | 46670 | 11574575 | ||
Land saving | 0 | 1 | 63230 | 0 | 50 | -63 | 39 | 4613889 | -28063 | 4649083 | ||
From Brazil to China | Produced in Brazil | 0 | 0 | 8061 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5375671 | 1353 | 5385085 | |
Produced in China | 0 | 0 | 3225 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9132113 | 744 | 9136082 | ||
Land saving | 0 | 0 | -4836 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3756442 | -609 | 3750997 | ||
From the US to Japan | Produced in the US | 49492 | 19803 | 1530255 | 794 | 42203 | 1165 | 114437 | 920101 | 1143114 | 3821364 | |
Produced in Japan | 45194 | 43084 | 5742507 | 1054 | 60659 | 720 | 172295 | 1581127 | 951354 | 8597995 | ||
Land saving | -4298 | 23281 | 4212253 | 260 | 18456 | -445 | 57858 | 661026 | -191760 | 4776631 | ||
The US to Mexico | Produced in the US | 13512 | 4 | 856712 | 4268 | 76305 | 86 | 506261 | 1221127 | 880524 | 3558799 | |
Produced in Mexico | 20641 | 4 | 2597371 | 6802 | 126503 | 113 | 568953 | 2362737 | 498360 | 6181482 | ||
Land saving | 7129 | 0 | 1740659 | 2533 | 50198 | 26 | 62691 | 1141610 | -382164 | 2622683 | ||
From Argentina to China | Produced in Argentina | 12669 | 0 | 231 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1764 | 3062232 | 0 | 3076896 | |
Produced in China | 14429 | 0 | 268 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2240 | 4962496 | 0 | 4979433 | ||
Land saving | 1760 | 0 | 37 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 476 | 1900264 | 0 | 1902537 | ||
From Canada to the US | Produced in Canada | 131772 | 1588 | 33764 | 613713 | 0 | 45820 | 0 | 109596 | 820789 | 1757042 | |
Produced in the US | 116720 | 1773 | 31810 | 774724 | 0 | 64403 | 0 | 103019 | 756988 | 1849437 | ||
Land saving | -15052 | 185 | -1954 | 161011 | 0 | 18583 | 0 | -63801 | 92395 | |||
From Argentina to Brazil | Produced in Argentina | 91391 | 0 | 3895 | 0 | 36100 | 24 | 11 | 315 | 1546233 | 1677969 | |
Produced in Brazil | 100754 | 0 | 6380 | 0 | 55288 | 30 | 20 | 311 | 1747153 | 1909937 | ||
Land saving | 9363 | 0 | 2485 | 0 | 19188 | 5 | 9 | -4 | 200921 | 231968 | ||
From the US to Republic of Korea | Produced in the US | 263 | 44 | 654768 | 475 | 11600 | 4422 | 365 | 193281 | 449706 | 1314923 | |
Produced in Republic of Korea | 418 | 38 | 1292935 | 449 | 12703 | 2806 | 946 | 333690 | 373658 | 2017643 | ||
Land saving | 155 | -5 | 638167 | -26 | 1103 | -1616 | 581 | 140409 | -76048 | 702720 | ||
From Brazil to Spain | Produced in Brazil | 0 | 0 | 271063 | 54 | 1635 | 0 | 7787 | 793475 | 7 | 1074021 | |
Produced in Spain | 0 | 0 | 105264 | 50 | 1045 | 0 | 4621 | 896714 | 5 | 1007699 | ||
Land saving | 0 | 0 | -165799 | -4 | -590 | 0 | -3166 | 103239 | 2 | -66322 | ||
From the US to Nigeria | Produced in the US | 0 | 0 | 87 | 0 | 3058 | 0 | 0 | 1123 | 1032562 | 1036830 | |
Produced in Nigeria | 0 | 0 | 435 | 0 | 12575 | 0 | 0 | 3091 | 618377 | 634478 | ||
Land saving | 0 | 0 | 348 | 0 | 9517 | 0 | 0 | 1968 | -414185 | -402352 | ||
From Australia to Japan | Produced in Australia | 347358 | 0 | 388 | 16860 | 0 | 0 | 4918 | 104 | 658657 | 1028285 | |
Produced in Japan | 191863 | 0 | 855 | 14456 | 0 | 0 | 5293 | 135 | 290267 | 502869 | ||
Land saving | -155495 | 0 | 466 | -2404 | 0 | 0 | 376 | 31 | -368390 | -525416 |
Table 6 A matrix of virtual-land flows from the ten largest virtual-land-export countries to the ten largest virtual-land-import countries (ha/year) |
to from | Algeria | China | Germany | Japan | Mexico | Morocco | Netherland | Republic of Korea | Spain | Venezuela |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 297011 | 3064227 | 12339 | 145593 | 207 | 157409 | 38059 | 19286 | 138130 | 51075 |
Australia | 9000 | 583643 | 2564 | 1028285 | 0 | 5406 | 0 | 632115 | 21626 | 780 |
Brazil | 128302 | 5385085 | 285728 | 256728 | 7102 | 155818 | 902309 | 278143 | 1074021 | 18196 |
Canada | 194716 | 200730 | 48790 | 662470 | 302889 | 191865 | 166028 | 188006 | 80430 | 287538 |
France | 600470 | 31545 | 280919 | 598 | 840 | 289953 | 563972 | 0 | 397441 | 0 |
Kazakhstan | 2324 | 0 | 66539 | 699 | 0 | 8490 | 824 | 0 | 6124 | 0 |
Russian | 6368 | 2108 | 8307 | 18074 | 0 | 39979 | 7298 | 12785 | 55256 | 0 |
Thailand | 11746 | 112486 | 9465 | 82935 | 42 | 14 | 27118 | 20010 | 12629 | 41 |
Ukraine | 47181 | 1626 | 14787 | 46115 | 0 | 30327 | 256155 | 179143 | 347056 | 0 |
US | 130927 | 6925492 | 402548 | 3821364 | 3558799 | 245622 | 205316 | 1314923 | 437362 | 364466 |
Note: The areas of virtual land are calculated by yields of export countries. |
Figure 4 Net imported virtual land per country and directions of virtual-land flow related to international cereal trade over the period of 2007-2011 Note: Only the largest virtual-land flows (>1,000,000 ha/year) are shown. |
Table 7 Average yields of cereal of the countries that are involved in the 11 largest virtual-land flows over the period of 2007-2011 (hg/ha) |
Barley | Buckwheat | Maize | Oats | Rice | Rye | Sorghum | Soybean | Wheat | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 33608 | N/A | 67713 | 18440 | 65654 | 15281 | 45124 | 26307 | 28715 |
Australia | 17580 | N/A | 55434 | 13785 | 88503 | 5985 | 31559 | 20552 | 15803 |
Brazil | 29383 | 11606 | 40314 | 20205 | 42969 | 12822 | 23577 | 28670 | 24678 |
Canada | 31679 | 11500 | 89157 | 28296 | N/A | 23860 | N/A | 26644 | 27436 |
China | 35883 | 8320 | 54375 | 27444 | 65637 | 30805 | 38360 | 16788 | 47390 |
Japan | 32215 | 5176 | 25799 | 17232 | 60659 | N/A | N/A | 16432 | 36174 |
Mexico | 23418 | N/A | 31832 | 15298 | 47504 | 15000 | 36698 | 15423 | 51922 |
Nigeria | N/A | N/A | 18472 | N/A | 17188 | N/A | 12694 | 9075 | 16697 |
Republic of Korea | 28139 | 10135 | 48869 | N/A | 71266 | N/A | 16006 | 16760 | 36098 |
Spain | 30518 | N/A | 103826 | 21333 | 73755 | 21217 | 41459 | 25335 | 32050 |
US | 36507 | 8785 | 96569 | 22432 | 78329 | 17153 | 41927 | 28357 | 29541 |
Average of the world | 28101 | 10841 | 43758 | 24022 | 37524 | 28398 | 28674 | 16297 | 30796 |
Table 1 in appendix Net land saving through cereal trade for 201 countries/regions |
Country | Net land saving (ha/year) | Country | Net land saving (ha/year) |
---|---|---|---|
China, mainland | 25781790 | Chad | 89898 |
Japan | 11201864 | Madagascar | 88253 |
Mexico | 6250096 | Mauritius | 76395 |
Morocco | 6138032 | Belarus | 74177 |
Algeria | 5283623 | Mali | 74023 |
Venezuela | 5089433 | New Zealand | 73689 |
Republic of Korea | 3547290 | Mongolia | 73688 |
Spain | 3535743 | Bolivia | 72615 |
Indonesia | 3325665 | Turkmenistan | 67181 |
Nigeria | 3007082 | Rwanda | 66663 |
Syrian Arab Republic | 2709493 | Brunei Darussalam | 59237 |
Iran | 2708283 | Uzbekistan | 57307 |
Germany | 2656802 | Gabon | 53846 |
Netherlands | 2599105 | Togo | 53398 |
Egypt | 2517040 | Slovenia | 50966 |
Italy | 2511334 | Fiji | 50372 |
China, Taiwan | 2370107 | Burundi | 45856 |
Libya | 2288057 | Namibia | 43297 |
Colombia | 2272798 | Bahrain | 42036 |
Jordan | 2175838 | Poland | 40525 |
Saudi Arabia | 2031040 | Barbados | 37782 |
Iraq | 1898973 | Malawi | 37283 |
Yemen | 1855308 | New Caledonia | 33984 |
Peru | 1845530 | Macedonia | 33389 |
Portugal | 1838485 | Austria | 33355 |
Turkey | 1682336 | Comoros | 32637 |
Israel | 1649835 | Guinea-Bissau | 28843 |
Tunisia | 1516452 | Malta | 25056 |
Malaysia | 1515052 | Iceland | 21120 |
Bangladesh | 1464979 | Bhutan | 19551 |
Philippines | 1334338 | Solomon Islands | 15646 |
Sudan (former) | 1317915 | Montenegro | 11827 |
Zimbabwe | 1243656 | Grenada | 9070 |
Belgium | 1059951 | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 8614 |
Tanzania | 908146 | Timor-Leste | 8285 |
Ecuador | 873227 | China, Macao | 7430 |
Cuba | 869336 | Maldives | 6366 |
Ethiopia | 864130 | Belize | 5246 |
Dominican Republic | 858426 | Luxembourg | 4693 |
Kenya | 846853 | French Polynesia | 4131 |
Mozambique | 831303 | Seychelles | 4054 |
Somalia | 768800 | Samoa | 4001 |
Cyprus | 667163 | Central African Republic | 3926 |
Cameroon | 655903 | Faroe Islands | 3308 |
Honduras | 632844 | Vanuatu | 3092 |
Côte d’Ivoire | 617596 | Bahamas | 3085 |
United Kingdom | 612499 | Equatorial Guinea | 2061 |
Guatemala | 577794 | Kiribati | 1818 |
South Africa | 570190 | Sao Tome and Principe | 1562 |
Azerbaijan | 563093 | Netherlands Antilles | 1540 |
Costa Rica | 552873 | Guam | 1367 |
United Arab Emirates | 529476 | Aruba | 1236 |
Angola | 512591 | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 919 |
Chile | 499125 | Saint Lucia | 683 |
Lesotho | 495154 | Suriname | 566 |
Greece | 467651 | Antigua and Barbuda | 400 |
Senegal | 463390 | Dominica | 373 |
Georgia | 420378 | Cayman Islands | 134 |
Congo, DR | 398694 | Bermuda | 89 |
Sri Lanka | 388194 | British Virgin Islands | 78 |
Norway | 385292 | Tonga | 47 |
Botswana | 337530 | Cook Islands | 27 |
Ghana | 310273 | Tuvalu | 14 |
Lebanon | 307742 | Nauru | 12 |
Panama | 295734 | Saint Pierre and Miquelon | 5 |
Kuwait | 292829 | Niue | 4 |
Afghanistan | 292335 | Guyana | -8251 |
Eritrea | 273103 | Laos | -23863 |
El Salvador | 257957 | Myanmar | -31085 |
Jamaica | 247537 | Denmark | -47363 |
Haiti | 240268 | Cambodia | -51372 |
Uganda | 227905 | Estonia | -58421 |
Mauritania | 205813 | Croatia | -61967 |
Niger | 181457 | Zambia | -64596 |
Korea, DPR | 175929 | Slovakia | -69767 |
Armenia | 175220 | Sweden | -121542 |
Liberia | 171749 | Viet Nam | -123817 |
Kyrgyzstan | 171738 | Republic of Moldova | -133933 |
Congo | 171554 | Finland | -163867 |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 162307 | Latvia | -174263 |
Papua New Guinea | 159575 | Czech Republic | -296855 |
Tajikistan | 154086 | Lithuania | -297548 |
Occupied Palestinian Territory | 151591 | Serbia | -300503 |
Ireland | 150592 | Bulgaria | -622897 |
Guinea | 149275 | Romania | -709695 |
Benin | 148063 | Pakistan | -763843 |
Swaziland | 143101 | Uruguay | -900625 |
Singapore | 141955 | Thailand | -1216772 |
Oman | 140984 | Hungary | -1218750 |
Switzerland | 138553 | Paraguay | -2298939 |
Nicaragua | 137253 | India | -2339266 |
Cabo Verde | 132540 | France | -3766286 |
Burkina Faso | 117850 | Kazakhstan | -4555794 |
Gambia | 115396 | Ukraine | -4758761 |
Qatar | 114497 | Russia | -6692039 |
China, Hong Kong | 113223 | Canada | -8115493 |
Nepal | 106546 | Argentina | -8928639 |
Djibouti | 101444 | Brazil | -9496388 |
Sierra Leone | 95590 | Australia | -9922634 |
Albania | 92221 | US | -27491736 |
Trinidad and Tobago | 90963 |
Table 2 in appendix External land dependency for 207 countries/regions |
Country | Domestic harvested area (ha/year) | Net virtual-land import ha/year) | External land dependency |
---|---|---|---|
Bahrain | 0 | 42036 | N/A |
Bermuda | 0 | 89 | N/A |
Aruba | 0 | 1236 | N/A |
Cayman Islands | 0 | 134 | N/A |
Cook Islands | 0 | 27 | N/A |
Equatorial Guinea | 0 | 2061 | N/A |
Faroe Islands | 0 | 3308 | N/A |
French Polynesia | 0 | 4131 | N/A |
Kiribati | 0 | 1818 | N/A |
China, Hong Kong | 0 | 113223 | N/A |
Iceland | 0 | 21120 | N/A |
China, Macao | 0 | 7430 | N/A |
Nauru | 0 | 12 | N/A |
Netherlands Antilles | 0 | 1540 | N/A |
Niue | 0 | 4 | N/A |
Saint Kitts and Nevis | 0 | 919 | N/A |
Saint Lucia | 0 | 683 | N/A |
Saint Pierre and Miquelon | 0 | 5 | N/A |
Seychelles | 0 | 4054 | N/A |
Singapore | 0 | 141955 | N/A |
Tonga | 0 | 47 | N/A |
Tuvalu | 0 | 14 | N/A |
British Virgin Islands | 0 | 78 | N/A |
Samoa | 0 | 4001 | N/A |
Djibouti | 8 | 101444 | 12680.45 |
Mauritius | 79 | 76395 | 969.4771 |
United Arab Emirates | 1348 | 529476 | 392.7864 |
Barbados | 102 | 37782 | 371.8745 |
Qatar | 524 | 114497 | 218.5054 |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 41 | 8614 | 209.0683 |
Kuwait | 1838 | 292829 | 159.2845 |
Jamaica | 1812 | 247537 | 136.6398 |
Maldives | 71 | 6366 | 89.41679 |
Guam | 17 | 1367 | 82.36963 |
Oman | 3179 | 140984 | 44.34845 |
Papua New Guinea | 3649 | 159575 | 43.73127 |
Brunei Darussalam | 1614 | 59237 | 36.69754 |
Jordan | 61135 | 2175838 | 35.59059 |
New Caledonia | 1069 | 33984 | 31.7904 |
Trinidad and Tobago | 3441 | 90963 | 26.43648 |
Grenada | 345 | 9070 | 26.30414 |
Bahamas | 149 | 3085 | 20.67528 |
Israel | 84125 | 1649835 | 19.61176 |
Cyprus | 37032 | 667163 | 18.01575 |
Solomon Islands | 1104 | 15646 | 14.17457 |
Netherlands | 214211 | 2599105 | 12.13338 |
Congo | 15033 | 171554 | 11.4115 |
Fiji | 4416 | 50372 | 11.4068 |
Antigua and Barbuda | 42 | 400 | 9.512762 |
China, Taiwan | 274056 | 2370107 | 8.648252 |
Costa Rica | 71569 | 552873 | 7.725073 |
Malta | 3418 | 25056 | 7.33072 |
Libya | 344875 | 2288057 | 6.634461 |
Portugal | 302005 | 1838485 | 6.087596 |
Occupied Palestinian Territory | 25614 | 151591 | 5.918301 |
Lebanon | 56866 | 307742 | 5.411732 |
Japan | 2082021 | 11201864 | 5.380283 |
Saudi Arabia | 378857 | 2031040 | 5.36097 |
Dominican Republic | 194428 | 858426 | 4.415143 |
Venezuela | 1156968 | 5089433 | 4.398942 |
Cabo Verde | 31517 | 132540 | 4.205284 |
Republic of Korea | 1056738 | 3547290 | 3.356831 |
Belgium | 323792 | 1059951 | 3.273554 |
Botswana | 116100 | 337530 | 2.907228 |
Lesotho | 176601 | 495154 | 2.803802 |
Dominica | 134 | 373 | 2.776378 |
Yemen | 716132 | 1855308 | 2.590733 |
Cuba | 347296 | 869336 | 2.503153 |
Montenegro | 4776 | 11827 | 2.47617 |
Swaziland | 57835 | 143101 | 2.47432 |
Malaysia | 681726 | 1515052 | 2.222379 |
Georgia | 193377 | 420378 | 2.173876 |
Vanuatu | 1436 | 3092 | 2.153605 |
Algeria | 2595359 | 5283623 | 2.035796 |
Colombia | 1117125 | 2272798 | 2.034507 |
Gabon | 27552 | 53846 | 1.954316 |
Panama | 159076 | 295734 | 1.859073 |
Comoros | 19923 | 32637 | 1.638174 |
Peru | 1180361 | 1845530 | 1.56353 |
Tunisia | 1064240 | 1516452 | 1.424915 |
Somalia | 547519 | 768800 | 1.404153 |
Honduras | 453727 | 632844 | 1.39477 |
Norway | 305381 | 385292 | 1.261676 |
Sao Tome and Principe | 1280 | 1562 | 1.220426 |
Morocco | 5202344 | 6138032 | 1.179859 |
Armenia | 158815 | 175220 | 1.103296 |
Ecuador | 836617 | 873227 | 1.043759 |
Senegal | 471980 | 463390 | 0.981798 |
Gambia | 118933 | 115396 | 0.970265 |
Switzerland | 143224 | 138553 | 0.967389 |
Chile | 525426 | 499125 | 0.949942 |
Mauritania | 225367 | 205813 | 0.913233 |
Syrian Arab Republic | 2978814 | 2709493 | 0.909588 |
Namibia | 49214 | 43297 | 0.87977 |
Iraq | 2194160 | 1898973 | 0.865467 |
Egypt | 3071090 | 2517040 | 0.819592 |
Côte d’Ivoire | 757427 | 617596 | 0.815387 |
Eritrea | 348968 | 273103 | 0.782603 |
Liberia | 227792 | 171749 | 0.753975 |
El Salvador | 357343 | 257957 | 0.721875 |
Guatemala | 812813 | 577794 | 0.710857 |
Italy | 3795662 | 2511334 | 0.661633 |
Zimbabwe | 1897122 | 1243656 | 0.655549 |
Albania | 144483 | 92221 | 0.638282 |
Mexico | 9807793 | 6250096 | 0.637258 |
Azerbaijan | 926739 | 563093 | 0.607607 |
Spain | 6101613 | 3535743 | 0.579477 |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 300516 | 162307 | 0.540096 |
New Zealand | 136832 | 73689 | 0.53854 |
Slovenia | 95287 | 50966 | 0.534869 |
Ireland | 292372 | 150592 | 0.515071 |
Greece | 1075372 | 467651 | 0.434874 |
Haiti | 558282 | 240268 | 0.43037 |
Germany | 6308509 | 2656802 | 0.421146 |
Cameroon | 1572667 | 655903 | 0.417064 |
Kenya | 2225932 | 846853 | 0.380449 |
Sri Lanka | 1044338 | 388194 | 0.371713 |
Angola | 1389877 | 512591 | 0.368803 |
Tajikistan | 419941 | 154086 | 0.366924 |
Mongolia | 216505 | 73688 | 0.340354 |
Mozambique | 2524021 | 831303 | 0.329357 |
Bhutan | 64497 | 19551 | 0.303131 |
Iran | 8977052 | 2708283 | 0.30169 |
Nicaragua | 465976 | 137253 | 0.29455 |
Kyrgyzstan | 587278 | 171738 | 0.29243 |
China, mainland | 95926026 | 25781790 | 0.268767 |
Guinea-Bissau | 122888 | 28843 | 0.234711 |
Ghana | 1327241 | 310273 | 0.233773 |
Nigeria | 13199408 | 3007082 | 0.227819 |
Burundi | 222385 | 45856 | 0.206202 |
Congo, DR | 1972782 | 398694 | 0.202097 |
United Kingdom | 3042437 | 612499 | 0.201318 |
Macedonia | 170815 | 33389 | 0.19547 |
Sudan (former) | 6850399 | 1317915 | 0.192385 |
Indonesia | 17327619 | 3325665 | 0.191929 |
Philippines | 7039240 | 1334338 | 0.189557 |
Belize | 28034 | 5246 | 0.187119 |
Luxembourg | 25402 | 4693 | 0.184755 |
Tanzania | 4930370 | 908146 | 0.184194 |
Sierra Leone | 570478 | 95590 | 0.167561 |
Rwanda | 427070 | 66663 | 0.156093 |
South Africa | 3663430 | 570190 | 0.155644 |
Uganda | 1551600 | 227905 | 0.146884 |
Benin | 1036465 | 148063 | 0.142854 |
Ethiopia | 6143549 | 864130 | 0.140656 |
Turkey | 12070141 | 1682336 | 0.13938 |
Bangladesh | 11938752 | 1464979 | 0.122708 |
Guinea | 1300539 | 149275 | 0.114779 |
Korea, DPR | 1556132 | 175929 | 0.113055 |
Afghanistan | 2933000 | 292335 | 0.099671 |
Timor-Leste | 101481 | 8285 | 0.081642 |
Chad | 1191948 | 89898 | 0.075421 |
Turkmenistan | 909898 | 67181 | 0.073834 |
Togo | 769537 | 53398 | 0.06939 |
Niger | 2959222 | 181457 | 0.061319 |
Madagascar | 1729575 | 88253 | 0.051026 |
Burkina Faso | 2507613 | 117850 | 0.046997 |
Austria | 773020 | 33355 | 0.04315 |
Bolivia | 1896329 | 72615 | 0.038292 |
Belarus | 1968230 | 74177 | 0.037687 |
Uzbekistan | 1546120 | 57307 | 0.037065 |
Nepal | 3155971 | 106546 | 0.03376 |
Mali | 2399517 | 74023 | 0.030849 |
Malawi | 1780026 | 37283 | 0.020945 |
Central African Republic | 211306 | 3926 | 0.018582 |
Suriname | 50169 | 566 | 0.011272 |
Poland | 5598390 | 40525 | 0.007239 |
French Guiana | 2937 | 0 | 0 |
Montserrat | 16 | 0 | 0 |
Micronesia | 145 | 0 | 0 |
Puerto Rico | 313 | 0 | 0 |
Réunion | 1847 | 0 | 0 |
Western Sahara | 3210 | 0 | 0 |
Myanmar | 8791644 | -31085 | -0.00354 |
Viet Nam | 8793695 | -123817 | -0.01408 |
Cambodia | 3010111 | -51372 | -0.01707 |
Laos | 1013995 | -23863 | -0.02353 |
India | 98280538 | -2339266 | -0.0238 |
Denmark | 1445560 | -47363 | -0.03276 |
Pakistan | 12853408 | -763843 | -0.05943 |
Guyana | 126099 | -8251 | -0.06543 |
Zambia | 972373 | -64596 | -0.06643 |
Slovakia | 756406 | -69767 | -0.09224 |
Thailand | 12551109 | -1216772 | -0.09695 |
Croatia | 596105 | -61967 | -0.10395 |
Sweden | 941866 | -121542 | -0.12904 |
Romania | 5116961 | -709695 | -0.13869 |
Moldova | 942070 | -133933 | -0.14217 |
Serbia | 2038082 | -300503 | -0.14744 |
Finland | 1075940 | -163867 | -0.1523 |
Russia | 40285302 | -6692039 | -0.16612 |
Czech Republic | 1470762 | -296855 | -0.20184 |
Estonia | 289268 | -58421 | -0.20196 |
Brazil | 41761186 | -9496388 | -0.2274 |
Kazakhstan | 15545136 | -4555794 | -0.29307 |
US | 88441963 | -27491736 | -0.31084 |
Ukraine | 15163800 | -4758761 | -0.31382 |
Lithuania | 917500 | -297548 | -0.3243 |
Argentina | 26511894 | -8928639 | -0.33678 |
Latvia | 507980 | -174263 | -0.34305 |
Bulgaria | 1712390 | -622897 | -0.36376 |
France | 9102805 | -3766286 | -0.41375 |
Hungary | 2664717 | -1218750 | -0.45737 |
Australia | 19594911 | -9922634 | -0.50639 |
Canada | 15971880 | -8115493 | -0.50811 |
Paraguay | 3948183 | -2298939 | -0.58228 |
Uruguay | 1506166 | -900625 | -0.59796 |
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2014, FAOSTAT, available from: (last access: 4/16/2014.
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