Journal of Geographical Sciences ›› 2023, Vol. 33 ›› Issue (8): 1587-1613.doi: 10.1007/s11442-023-2144-4
• Special Issue: Human-environment interactions and Ecosystems • Previous Articles Next Articles
SHAO Quanqin1,2(
), LIU Shuchao1,2, NING Jia1, LIU Guobo1,2, YANG Fan3, ZHANG Xiongyi1,2, NIU Linan1,2, HUANG Haibo1, FAN Jiangwen1, LIU Jiyuan1
Received:2023-04-02
Accepted:2023-05-25
Online:2023-08-25
Published:2023-08-29
About author:Shao Quanqin (1962-), PhD and Professor, specialized in ecological information. E-mail: shaoqq@igsnrr.ac.cn
Supported by:SHAO Quanqin, LIU Shuchao, NING Jia, LIU Guobo, YANG Fan, ZHANG Xiongyi, NIU Linan, HUANG Haibo, FAN Jiangwen, LIU Jiyuan. Remote sensing assessment of the ecological benefits provided by national key ecological projects in China during 2000-2019[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2023, 33(8): 1587-1613.
Figure 1
Spatial distribution of key ecological projects in China Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 2
Spatial overlay of nine key ecological projects in China Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 1
Number of overlapping ecological projects and the area of each of nine key ecological projects in China
| Number of projects implemented | Area (× 104 km2) | Percentage of land area in China (%) |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 35.2 | 3.7 |
| 1 | 78.8 | 8.2 |
| 2 | 282.1 | 29.4 |
| 3 | 336.9 | 35.1 |
| 4 | 168.4 | 17.5 |
| 5 | 58.7 | 6.1 |
Table 2
Indexes for assessing the ecological benefits of key ecological projects in China over the past 20 years
| Categories | Assessment indicators | |
|---|---|---|
| First-level indicators | Second-level indicators | |
| Ecosystem macro-structure | Area of various ecosystems | Area of ecosystem structure |
| Rate of area change | ||
| Ecosystem quality | Net primary productivity of vegetation | NPP |
| Fractional vegetation coverage | FVC | |
| Ecosystem services | Water retention | Water retention |
| Soil retention | Soil erosion modulus | |
| Soil retention | ||
| Windbreak and sand fixation | Wind erosion modulus | |
| Windbreak and sand fixation | ||
Table 3
Ordinal scale for evaluating the trend of restoration of ecosystem quality and ecosystem services
| Judgement basis | Judgement result | |
|---|---|---|
| 2000-2010 | 2010-2019 | Overall restoration tendency from 2000 to 2019 |
| Improved | Improved | Continuously improved |
| Worsened | Worsened | Continuously worsened |
| Basically stable | Basically stable | Continuously basically stable |
| Improved | Worsened | First improved and then worsened |
| Improved | Basically stable | First improved and then basically stable |
| Worsened | Improved | First worsened and then improved |
| Worsened | Basically stable | First worsened and then basically stable |
| Basically stable | Improved | First basically stable and then improved |
| Basically stable | Worsened | First basically stable and then worsened |
Table 4
Basis for judging the ecological restoration degree
| Ecological restoration degree | Judgment condition1 |
|---|---|
| Basically remained stable | Si ≥ 3 |
| Slightly worsened | Si < 3 and Wi = 2 |
| Moderately worsened | Si < 3 and Wi = 3 |
| Severely worsened | Si < 3 and Wi ≥ 4 |
| Extremely improved ecological restoration degree | Bi ≥ 4 |
| Strongly improved ecological restoration degree | Bi = 3 |
| Moderately improved ecological restoration degree | Si < 3 and Wi < 2 and Bi = 2 |
| Some elements improved while some elements worsened | Si < 3 and Wi < 2 and Bi = 1 |
Figure 3
Spatial distribution of ecological-geographical zones and nature reserves in China VA is middle-subtropical humid zone; IID is middle-temperate arid zone; IIC is middle-temperate and semi-arid zone; IIB is middle-temperate subhumid zone; IIA is middle-temperate humid zone; VIA is south subtropical humid zone; IVA is north subtropical humid zone; IIID is warm-temperate arid zone; IIIC is warm-temperate semi-arid zone; IIIB is warm-temperate subhumid zone; HIC is the sub-cold and semi-arid region of the plateau; HIID is the temperate arid zone of the plateau; HIIC is the temperate semi-arid zone of the plateau; HIIA-B is the temperate humid and subhumid zone of the plateau; HIB is the sub-cold subhumid zone of the plateau.
Figure 4
Changes in ecosystem macro structure area in China in two periods (2000-2010 and 2010-2018)
Figure 5
Distribution of changes in the slope of FVC (a) and its significance test (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 6
Distribution of changes in the slope of NPP (a) and its significance test (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 5
Annual mean value of ecosystem services in China
| Ecosystem service | 2000-2010 | 2010-2019 | 2000-2019 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water retention | Water retention per unit area (m3·ha-1·a-1) | 2105.0 | 2099.1 | 2083.4 |
| Total amount of water conserved (× 108 m3·a-1) | 17979.9 | 17929.4 | 17795.7 | |
| Soil retention | Soil erosion modulus per unit area (t·ha-1·a-1) | 14.5 | 10.9 | 12.8 |
| Total soil erosion modulus amount (× 108 t·a-1) | 103.4 | 78.1 | 91.3 | |
| Soil retention per unit area (t·ha-1·a-1) | 33.0 | 46.4 | 39.2 | |
| Total amount of soil conserved (× 108 t·a-1) | 235.7 | 331.6 | 280.0 | |
| Windbreak and sand fixation | Wind erosion modulus per unit area (t·ha-1·a-1) | 25.1 | 17.6 | 21.5 |
| Total wind erosion modulus amount (× 108 t·a-1) | 138.7 | 96.9 | 118.8 | |
| Windbreak and sand fixation per unit area (t·ha-1·a-1) | 24.8 | 19.8 | 22.4 | |
| Windbreak and sand fixation per unit area (× 108 t·a-1) | 137.0 | 109.5 | 123.7 | |
Figure 7
Distribution of the change slope of water retention services (a) and its significance test (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 8
Distribution of changes in the slope of soil retention services (a) and its significance test (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2018)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 9
Distribution of the change slope of windbreak and sand fixation services (a) and its significance test (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 6
Statistical analysis of the restoring tendency of ecosystem quality
| Recovery tendency | The area proportion of different recovery tendencies of FVC (%) | The area proportion of different recovery tendencies of NPP (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Continuously improving | 11.8 | 32.9 |
| Continuously worsening | 4.6 | 1.5 |
| Remaining stable | 36.6 | 34.3 |
| First improving and then worsening | 10.8 | 6.2 |
| First improving and then remaining stable | 9.1 | 10.9 |
| First worsening and then improving | 7.0 | 4.7 |
| First worsening and then remaining stable | 4.6 | 1.6 |
| First remaining stable and then improving | 7.7 | 6.3 |
| First remaining stable and then worsening | 10.8 | 6.2 |
Figure 10
Spatial distribution of restoring tendency of FVC (a) and NPP (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 7
Statistical of restoring tendency of ecosystem services
| Recovery tendency | The area proportion of different recovery tendency of water retention (%) | The area proportion of different recovery tendency of soil retention (%) | The area proportion of different recovery tendency of windbreak and sand fixation (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Continuously improving | 9.4 | 5.1 | 1.4 |
| Continuously worsening | 21.7 | 0.7 | 13.5 |
| Remaining stable | 17.0 | 74.9 | 46.5 |
| First improving and then worsening | 15.1 | 2.6 | 3.6 |
| First improving and then remaining stable | 14.2 | 3.2 | 0.7 |
| First worsening and then improving | 8.1 | 3.9 | 17.8 |
| First worsening and then remaining stable | 2.6 | 1.4 | 6.8 |
| First remaining stable and then improving | 8.2 | 6.9 | 4.2 |
| First remaining stable and then worsening | 3.7 | 1.3 | 5.5 |
Figure 11
Spatial distribution of restoring tendency of soil retention (a) and windbreak and sand fixation (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 12
Spatial distribution of the degree of ecosystem restoration in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 8
Area of different degrees of ecological restoration
| Restoration degree | Area (×104 km2) | Area ratio (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Basically remained stable | 310.9 | 32.4 |
| Slightly worsened | 74.6 | 7.8 |
| Moderately worsened | 9.0 | 0.9 |
| Severely worsened | 0.5 | 0.1 |
| Extremely improved ecological restoration degree | 16.2 | 1.7 |
| Strongly improved ecological restoration degree | 111.5 | 11.6 |
| Moderately improved ecological restoration degree | 204.1 | 21.3 |
| Some elements improved while some elements worsened | 181.8 | 18.9 |
Table 9
Relative contributions of ecological projects and climate to changes in NPP and water erosion modulus from 2000 to 2019
| Zone | Changes in NPP | Changes in the soil erosion modulus | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Contribution rate of ecological engineering (%) | Contribution rate of climate (%) | Contribution rate of ecological engineering (%) | Contribution rate of climate (%) | |
| China | 14.6 | 85.4 | 30.5 | 69.5 |
| Three-North Shelterbelt Forest Program region | 10.4 | 89.6 | 36.9 | 63.1 |
| Natural Forest Protection Program region | 18.7 | 81.3 | 27.6 | 72.4 |
| Beijing-Tianjin Sand Source Control Program region | 18.3 | 81.7 | 25.6 | 74.4 |
| Grain for Green Project region | 14.0 | 86.0 | 31.0 | 69.0 |
| Returning Rangeland to Grassland Program region | 10.1 | 89.9 | 36.8 | 63.2 |
| Karst Rocky Desertification Control Program in Southwest China region | 20.8 | 79.2 | 20.3 | 79.7 |
| Yangtze River Shelterbelt Construction Project region | 20.5 | 79.5 | 23.8 | 76.2 |
| Ecological Conservation and Restoration Project in Three-river Headwaters Region | 12.5 | 87.5 | 26.2 | 73.8 |
| Pearl River Shelterbelt System Construction Project Region | 24.8 | 75.2 | 18.0 | 72.0 |
Figure 13
Spatial distribution of FVC under climax ecological conditions (a) and restoration potential of FVC (b) in China from 2017 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Figure 14
Spatial distribution of the average annual temperature (a) and annual precipitation (b) in China from 2000 to 2019 Note: This map is based on the standard map with approval number GS(2019)1823 downloaded from the standard map service website of the National Bureau of Surveying, Mapping, and Geographic Information, and the base map has not been modified.
Table 10
Statistics of the degree of ecological restoration in the ecological project overlay implementation area (×104 km2)
| Number of implemented projects (pieces) | Basically remained stable | Slightly worsened | Moderately worsened | Severely worsened | Extremely improved ecological restoration degree | Strongly improved ecological restoration degree | Moderately improved ecological restoration degree | Some elements improved, while some elements worsened |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 4.3 | 6.2 | 0.7 | 0 | 0.2 | 2.9 | 8.8 | 9.5 |
| 1 | 9.8 | 10.9 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 7.1 | 22.3 | 22.5 |
| 2 | 115.5 | 21.9 | 3.1 | 0.1 | 1.6 | 16.2 | 44.3 | 59.7 |
| 3 | 108.7 | 21.5 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 8.6 | 52.9 | 77.3 | 50.0 |
| 4 | 55.0 | 8.9 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 4.1 | 23.8 | 40.0 | 28.1 |
| 5 | 17.0 | 5.3 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.8 | 8.5 | 11.2 | 11.4 |
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