Journal of Geographical Sciences ›› 2021, Vol. 31 ›› Issue (12): 1791-1815.doi: 10.1007/s11442-021-1923-z
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Received:
2021-03-25
Accepted:
2021-08-14
Online:
2021-12-25
Published:
2022-02-25
About author:
Xue Desheng (1969-), PhD and Professor, E-mail: eesxds@mail.sysu.edu.cn
Supported by:
XUE Desheng, OU Yubin. Intercity connections and a world city network based on international sport events: Empirical studies on the Beijing, London, and Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2021, 31(12): 1791-1815.
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Table 1
Activity values of the subjects of the specific events
Competition for the right to host the Olympic Games | Competition for athletes’ qualification to participate in the Olympic Games | TOP programme | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subjects | Activity values | Subjects | Activity values | Subjects | Activity values | |
IOC | 5 | IOC | 5 | IOC | 5 | |
Competition committee of host cities | 4 | OCOG | 4 | OCOG | 4 | |
Competition committee of cities that participate in the second round | 2 | ISFs | 4 | MNCs | 4 | |
Competition committee of cities that participate in the first round | 1 | Regional headquarters of the Olympic committee | 3 | |||
NOCs | 2 | |||||
NSFs | 1 | |||||
OCOG sponsorship programme | Torch relay | TV broadcast | ||||
Subjects | Activity values | Subjects | Activity values | Subjects | Activity values | |
OCOG | 5 | OCOG | 5 | OCOG | 5 | |
OCOG partners | 3 | IOC | 4 | IOC | 4 | |
OCOG sponsors | 2 | Government of Athens | 3 | Rights-holding broadcasters | 3 | |
OCOG providers | 1 | Government of foreign cities | 2 | Non-rights-holding broadcasters | 1 | |
Government of domestic cities | 1 |
Table 2
Number of city nodes in different regions
Beijing Olympic Games | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regions | Chinese mainland | Asia except China | Europe | America except LA | Latin America | Africa | Oceania | Sum |
Count of nations/regions | 1 | 44 | 53 | 2 | 47 | 54 | 24 | 225 |
Count of cities | 108 | 60 | 114 | 22 | 60 | 69 | 31 | 464 |
London Olympic Games | ||||||||
Regions | Britain | Asia | Europe except Britain | America except LA | Latin America | Africa | Oceania | Sum |
Count of nations/regions | 1 | 45 | 52 | 2 | 47 | 54 | 24 | 225 |
Count of cities | 65 | 59 | 140 | 19 | 59 | 69 | 32 | 443 |
Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games | ||||||||
Regions | Brazil | Asia | Europe | America except LA | LA except Brazil | Africa | Oceania | Sum |
Count of nations/regions | 1 | 45 | 53 | 2 | 46 | 54 | 24 | 225 |
Count of cities | 324 | 58 | 138 | 19 | 56 | 70 | 32 | 697 |
Table 4
Number of city nodes in different countries of the three Olympic Games
Count of city nodes in certain countries | Count of countries | Countries/Regions |
---|---|---|
Beijing Olympic Games | ||
Over 100 | 1 | China (108) |
10-100 | 4 | America (14), Britain (12), Germany (12), Switzerland (11) |
5-9 | 4 | Canada (8), Australia (6), Austria (6), Netherlands (5) |
3-4 | 8 | Belgium (4), Guam (4), Bolivia (3), Columbia (3), Pakistan (3), South Africa (3), Bosnia and Herzegovina (3), New Zealand (3) |
2 | 48 | Myanmar, Morocco, etc. |
1 | 160 | Algeria, Albania, etc. |
London Olympic Games | ||
Over 100 | 1 | Britain (65) |
10-100 | 4 | Greece (34), America (13), Germany (13), Switzerland (11) |
5-9 | 4 | Canada (6), Australia (5), Austria (6), Netherlands (5) |
3-4 | 9 | Belgium (4); Guam (4); France (3), Bolivia (3), Columbia (3), Pakistan (3), Bosnia and Herzegovina (3), New Zealand (3), South Africa (3) |
2 | 49 | Myanmar, Morocco, etc. |
1 | 158 | Algeria, Albania, etc. |
Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games | ||
Over 100 | 1 | Brazil (324) |
10-100 | 5 | Greece (28), America (13), Britain (12), Germany (12), Switzerland (10) |
5-9 | 4 | Canada (6), Australia (5), Austria (6), Netherlands (5) |
3-4 | 8 | Belgium (4), Guam (4), Pakistan (3), Bolivia (3), Columbia (3), South Africa (3), Bosnia and Herzegovina (3), New Zealand (3) |
2 | 43 | Myanmar, Morocco, etc. |
1 | 164 | Algeria, Albania, etc. |
Table 5
Different levels of urban nodes in terms of network connectivity based on different Olympic Games
Levels (Connectivity) | Count of cities | Cities | |
---|---|---|---|
Beijing Olympic Games | |||
Global central cities (Over 1000) | 2 | Lausanne, Beijing | |
Specialized central cities (41-1000) | Specialized regional central cities (96-1000) | 12 | Abuja, Rome, Kuwait City, etc. |
Specialized transnational central cities (41-95) | 27 | Istanbul, Toronto, Osaka, etc. | |
National central cities (16-40) | 194 | Ankara, Lisbon, Melbourne, etc. | |
Specialized cities (2-15) | 209 | Guangzhou, Canberra, Birmingham, etc. | |
London Olympic Games | |||
Global central cities(Over 1000) | 2 | Lausanne, London | |
Specialized central cities (41-1000) | Specialized regional central cities (80-1000) | 15 | Mexico City, Abuja, Rome, etc. |
Specialized transnational central cities (41-79) | 24 | Toronto, Beijing, Miami, etc. | |
National central cities (16-40) | 192 | Ankara, Sydney, Athens, etc. | |
Specialized cities (2-15) | 191 | Bridgetown, Sucre, Almaty, etc. | |
Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games | |||
Global central cities(Over 1000) | 2 | Lausanne, Rio de Janeiro | |
Specialized central cities (41-1000) | Specialized regional central cities (86-1000) | 12 | Mexico City, Abuja, Rome, etc. |
Specialized transnational central cities (41-85) | 24 | Madrid, Toronto, Dublin, etc. | |
National central cities (16-40) | 196 | Ankara, Sydney, Bridgetown, etc. | |
Specialized cities (2-15) | 442 | Geneva, Cape Town, Amsterdam, etc. |
Table 7
Betweenness centrality of cities in the world city networks of different Olympic Games
Rank | Sum | Power Struggles | Sponsorship Activities | Publicity Activities | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
City | Betweenness centrality | City | Betweenness centrality | City | Betweenness centrality | City | Betweenness centrality | |
Beijing Olympic Games | ||||||||
1 | Lausanne | 0.060174 | Lausanne | 0.046732 | Beijing | 0.738095 | Beijing | 0.001244 |
2 | Beijing | 0.042567 | Toronto | 0.010258 | Lausanne | 0.476190 | Dakar | 0.000890 |
3 | Toronto | 0.008404 | Cairo | 0.004114 | Tunis | 0.000717 | ||
4 | Brussels | 0.008139 | Istanbul | 0.003245 | Geneva | 0.000575 | ||
5 | Istanbul | 0.006522 | Kuala Lumpur | 0.002948 | Brussels | 0.000575 | ||
6 | Cairo | 0.004818 | Havana | 0.000930 | Kuala Lumpur | 0.000545 | ||
7 | Paris | 0.004627 | Paris | 0.000913 | Mexico City | 0.000307 | ||
8 | Kuala Lumpur | 0.003343 | Beijing | 0.000616 | ||||
9 | Tunis | 0.003116 | Bangkok | 0.000616 | ||||
10 | Geneva | 0.002337 | Pasig City | 0.000242 | ||||
Proportion (%) | 94.32 | 99.98 | 100.00 | 100.00 | ||||
London Olympic Games | ||||||||
1 | London | 0.058776 | Lausanne | 0.034593 | London | 0.541667 | London | 0.001021 |
2 | Lausanne | 0.045266 | London | 0.021630 | Lausanne | 0.163043 | Johannesburg | 0.000985 |
3 | Kuwait City | 0.012117 | Paris | 0.000460 | Kuala Lumpur | 0.000664 | ||
4 | Seoul | 0.011938 | Moscow | 0.000460 | Geneva | 0.000615 | ||
5 | Brussels | 0.009280 | Madrid | 0.000460 | Brussels | 0.000615 | ||
6 | Tunis | 0.007435 | Pasig City | 0.000190 | Kingstown | 0.000429 | ||
7 | Johannesburg | 0.007131 | Georgetown | 0.000011 | Auckland | 0.000229 | ||
8 | Abuja | 0.005210 | Miami | 0.000183 | ||||
9 | Kuala Lumpur | 0.003263 | Tunis | 0.000172 | ||||
10 | Geneva | 0.003210 | Dubai | 0.000172 | ||||
Proportion (%) | 90.26 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 96.73 | ||||
Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games | ||||||||
1 | Rio de Janeiro | 0.032248 | Lausanne | 0.023938 | Lausanne | 0.359477 | Rio de Janeiro | 0.001207 |
2 | Lausanne | 0.019943 | Rio de Janeiro | 0.004169 | Rio de Janeiro | 0.333333 | Johannesburg | 0.000297 |
3 | Bern | 0.007153 | Tokyo | 0.000919 | Paris | 0.000272 | ||
4 | Tunis | 0.006279 | Doha | 0.000919 | Tokyo | 0.000166 | ||
5 | Abuja | 0.004968 | Madrid | 0.000605 | Bridgetown | 0.000143 | ||
6 | Doha | 0.004473 | Prague | 0.000605 | Auckland | 0.000138 | ||
7 | Tokyo | 0.003799 | Baku | 0.000605 | Tunis | 0.000110 | ||
8 | Johannesburg | 0.003209 | Abuja | 0.000539 | Mexico City | 0.000110 | ||
9 | Kuwait City | 0.002827 | Pasig City | 0.000132 | Mumbai | 0.000041 | ||
10 | Paris | 0.000707 | Georgetown | 0.000011 | Rome | 0.000007 | ||
Proportion (%) | 97.08 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 99.72 |
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