Slope spectrum critical area and its spatial variation in the Loess Plateau of China

doi:10.1007/s11442-015-1245-0

Abstract

Abstract:

Slope spectrum has been proved to be a significant methodology in revealing geomorphological features in the study of Chinese loess terrain. The determination of critical areas in deriving slope spectra is an indispensable task. Along with the increase in the size of the study area, the derived spectra are becoming more and more alike, such that their differences can be ignored in favor of a standard. Subsequently, the test size is defined as the Slope Spectrum Critical Area (SSCA). SSCA is not only the foundation of the slope spectrum calculation but also, to some extent, a reflection of geomorphological development of loess relief. High resolution DEMs are important in extracting the slope spectrum. A set of 48 DEMs with different landform areas of the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi province was selected for the experiment. The spatial distribution of SSCA is investigated with a geo-statistical analysis method, resulting in values ranging from 6.18 km² to 35.1 km². Primary experimental results show that the spatial distribution of SSCA is correlated with the spatial distribution of the soil erosion intensity, to a certain extent reflecting the terrain complexity. The critical area of the slope spectrum presents a spatial variation trend of weak-strong-weak from north to south. Four terrain parameters, gully density, slope skewness, terrain driving force (T_d) and slope of slope (SOS), were chosen as indicators. There exists a good exponential function relationship between SSCA and gully density, terrain driving force (T_d) and SOS and a logarithmic function relationship between SSCA and slope skewness. Slope skewness increases, and gully density, terrain driving force and SOS decrease with increasing SSCA. SSCA can be utilized as a discriminating factor to identify loess landforms, in that spatial distributions of SSCA and the evolution of loess landforms are correlative. Following the evolution of a loess landform from tableland to gully-hilly region, this also proves that SSCA can represent the development degree of local landforms. The critical stable regions of the Loess Plateau represent the degree of development of loess landforms. Its chief significance is that the perception of stable areas can be used to determine the minimal geographical unit.

Key words: digital elevation model, slope spectrum, critical area, spatial variation, independent geomorphological unit, Loess Plateau

Guoan TANG, Xiaodong SONG, Fayuan LI, Yong ZHANG, Liyang XIONG. Slope spectrum critical area and its spatial variation in the Loess Plateau of China[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(12): 1452-1466.

Figures/Tables 11

Figure 1

Table 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Table 2

Table 3

Figure 7

Figure 8

References 38

1	Ayalew L, Yamagishi H, 2004. Slope failures in the Blue Nile basin, as seen from landscape evolution perspective.Geomorphology, 57(1/2): 95-116. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(03)00085-0
2	Chen Liding, Huang Zhilin, Gong Jieet al., 2007. The effect of land cover/vegetation on soil water dynamic in the hilly area of the Loess Plateau, China.Catena, 70(2): 200-208. doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2006.08.007
3	Cheng Weiming, Zhou Chenghu, 2014. Methodology on hierarchical classification of multi-scale digital geomorphology.Progress in Geography, 33(1): 23-33. (in Chinese) doi: 10.11820/dlkxjz.2014.01.003
4	Davis W M, 1899. The geographical cycle.Geographical Journal, 14: 481-504.
5	He Xiubin, Li Zhanbin, Hao Mingdeet al., 2003. Down-scale analysis for water scarcity in response to soil-water conservation on Loess Plateau of China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 94(3): 355-361. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8809(02)00039-7
6	Hessel R, van Asch T, 2003. Modelling gully erosion for a small catchment on the Chinese Loess Plateau.Catena, 54(1/2): 131-146. doi: 10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00061-4
7	Hughes M W, Almond P C, Roering J Jet al., 2010. Late Quaternary loess landscape evolution on an active tectonic margin, Charwell Basin, South Island, New Zealand.Geomorphology, 122(3/4): 294-308. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.09.034
8	Iwahashi J, Watanabeb S, Furuya T, 2001. Landform analysis of slope movements using DEM in Higashikubiki area, Japan.Computers & Geosciences, 27(7): 851-865. doi: 10.1016/S0098-3004(00)00144-8
9	Jiang Deqi, Zhao Chengxin, Chen Zhanglin, 1966. Research on the sediment source in middle reaches of Yellow River.Acta Geographica Sinica, 31(1): 20-36. (in Chinese)
10	Jing Ke, 1986. A study on gully erosion on the Loess Plateau.Scientia Geographica Sinica, 6(4): 340-347. (in Chinese)
11	Li Fayuan, 2007. Research on the slope spectrum and its spatial distribution in the Loess Plateau [D]. Nanjing Normal University, 55-70. (in Chinese)
12	Li Fayuan, Tang Guoan, 2006. DEM based research on the terrain driving force of soil erosion in the Loess Plateau. In: Geoinformatics 2006: Geospatial Information Science, Proc. of SPIE, 2006, 6420, Reston, Virginia, USA. doi: 10.1117/12.712980
13	Li Fayuan, Tang Guoan, Wang Chun et al., 2007. Quantitative analysis and spatial distribution of slope spectrum: A case study in the Loess Plateau in north Shaanxi province. In: Chen J M, Pu Y X, eds. Proceedings or SPIE-Geoinformatics 2007: Geospatial In-formation Science. Bellingham: SPIE, 2007.
14	Liang Guanglin, Chen Hao, Cai Qiangguoet al., 2004. Research progress of modern topographic evolvement and landform erosion in Loess Plateau.Research of Soil and Water Conservation, 11(4): 131-137. (in Chinese)
15	Luo Laixing, 1956. A tentative classification of landforms in the Loess Plateau.Acta Geographica Sinica, 22(3): 201-222. (in Chinese)
16	Matsushi Y, Matsuzaki H, 2010. Denudation rates and threshold slope in a granitic watershed, central Japan. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 268(7/8): 1201-1204. doi: 10.1016/j.nimb.2009.10.133
17	Ma Naixi, 1996. Relationship between loess geomorphic evolution and soil erosion.Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation, 16(2): 6-10. (in Chinese)
18	McBride R A, Taylor M J, Byrnes M R, 2007. Coastal morphodynamics and Chenier-Plain evolution in southwestern Louisiana, USA: A geomorphic model.Geomorphology, 88(3/4): 367-422. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.11.013
19	O’Callaghan J F, Mark D M, 1984. The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data. Computer Vision,Graphics and Image Processing, 28(3): 323-344. doi: 10.1016/S0734-189X(84)80011-0
20	Rowbotham D N, Dudycha D, 1998. GIS modelling of slope stability in Phewa Tal watershed, Nepal. Geomorphology, 26(1-3): 151-170. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00056-7
21	Shary P A, Sharayab L S, Mitusov A V, 2002. Fundamental quantitative methods of land surface analysis.Geoderma, 107(1/2): 1-43. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00136-7
22	Shi Hui, Shao Mingan, 2000. Soil and water loss from the Loess Plateau in China.Journal of Arid Environments, 45(1): 9-20. doi: 10.1006/jare.1999.0618
23	Tang Guoan, Li Fayuan, Liu Xuejunet al., 2008. Research on the slope spectrum of the Loess Plateau. Science in China (Series E:Technological Sciences), 51(1): 175-185. doi: 10.1007/s11431-008-5002-9
24	Tang Guoan, Zhao Mudan, Li Tuanwenet al., 2003. Simulation on slope uncertainty extracted from DEMs at different resolution levels: A case study in the Loess Plateau.Journal of Geographical Sciences, 13(4): 387-394. doi: 10.1007/BF02837875
25	Tong Chiming, Zhou Chenghu, Cheng Weiminget al., 2014. Morphological characteristics and developmental stages of loess tablelands based on DEM.Progress in Geography, 33(1): 42-49. (in Chinese) doi: 10.11820/dlkxjz.2014.01.005
26	Tucker G E, Catani F, Rinaldo Aet al., 2001. Statistical analysis of drainage density from digital terrain data.Geomorphology, 36(3/4): 187-202. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00056-8
27	Vanacker V, Vanderschaeghe M, Govers Get al., 2003. Linking hydrological, infinite slope stability and land-use change models through GIS for assessing the impact of deforestation on slope stability in high Andean watersheds.Geomorphology, 52(3/4): 299-315. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00263-5
28	Wang Chun, 2005. The uncertainty of slope spectrum derived from DEM in the Loess Plateau of northern Shaanxi province [D]. Northwest University, 86-94. (in Chinese)
29	Xiong Liyang, Tang Guoan, Li Fayuanet al., 2014a. Modeling the evolution of loess-covered landforms in the Loess Plateau of China using a DEM of underground bedrock surface.Geomorphology, 209: 18-26. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.009
30	Xiong Liyang, Tang Guoan, Yuan Baoyinet al., 2014b. Geomorphological inheritance for loess landform evolution in a severe soil erosion region of Loess Plateau of China based on digital elevation models.Science China Earth Sciences, 57(8): 1944-1952. doi: 10.1007/s11430-014-4833-4
31	Xu Yong, Yang Bo, Liu Guobinet al., 2009. Topographic differentiation simulation of crop yield and soil and water loss on the Loess Plateau.Journal of Geographical Sciences, 19(3): 331-339. doi: 10.1007/s11442-009-0331-6
32	Yamada S, 1999. The role of soil creep and slope failure in the landscape evolution of a head water basin: Field measurements in a zero order basin of northern Japan.Geomorphology, 28(3/4): 329-344. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00113-5
33	Yang Guifang, Zhang Xujiao, Tian Mingzhonget al., 2011. Alluvial terrace systems in Zhangjiajie of northwest Hunan, China: Implications for climatic change, tectonic uplift and geomorphic evolution.Quaternary International, 233(1): 27-39. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.019
34	Zevenbergen L W, Thorne C R, 1987. Quantitative analysis of land surface topography.Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 12(1): 47-56. doi: 10.1002/esp.3290120107
35	Zhang Liping, Ma Zhizheng, 1998. The research on the relation between gully density and cutting depth in different drainage landform evolution periods.Geographical Research, 17(3): 273-278. (in Chinese)
36	Zhou Qiming, Liu Xuejun, 2006a. Digital Terrain Analysis. Beijing: Science Press. (in Chinese)
37	Zhou Yi, Tang Guoan, Yang Xinet al., 2010. Positive and negative terrains on northern Shaanxi Loess Plateau.Journal of Geographical Sciences, 20(1): 64-76. doi: 10.1007/s11442-010-0064-6
38	Zhou Zhengchao, Shangguan Zhouping, Zhao Duli, 2006b. Modeling vegetation coverage and soil erosion in the Loess Plateau Area of China.Ecological Modelling, 198(1/2): 263-268. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.04.019

Site	Area name	1: 10,000 DEM
Site	Area name	Minimum (m)	Maximum (m)	Mean (m)	Standard deviation (m)
I	Shenmu	1005	1322	1197.92	49.95
II	Yulin	1110	1310	1212.20	37.27
III	Suide	814	1188	995.35	62.10
IV	Yanchuan	922	1251	1088.92	61.14
V	Yanan	990	1404	1196.86	79.45
VI	Ganquan	1151	1432	1296.00	55.87
VII	Yijun	761	1158	986.09	73.08
VIII	Chunhua	768	1188	1044.75	75.27

Site	Area name	SSCA (km²) 1:10,000	Landform types
I	Shenmu	13.29	Loess deep incision gorge-hill
III	Suide	8.21	Loess hill-ridge
IV	Yanchuan	10.08	Loess hill-ridge
VI	Ganquan	10.60	Loess ridge-low-mountain
VII	Yijun	13.21	Loess tableland
VIII	Chunhua	35.01	Loess middle-low mountain, loess platform-tableland

Indicators	Algorithms	Units	Significance
Gully density	ΣL: The gully distance in watershed A:The area of watershed	km/km²	Reflecting the fragmentation of the surface
Skewness of the slope spectrum (S)	:Mean frequency σ: Standard deviation	Unitless	Reflecting the distribution of slope gradient combination
Terrain dynamic force (T_d)	P_i: Frequency of each slope class a_ij: Slope gradient of grid ij j: Number of grid for slope class i	Unitless	Reflecting the erosional potential by the terrain
Slope of slope (SOS)	f_x: The variation rate of slope along x axis f_y: The variation rate of slope along y axis	Unitless	Reflecting the complexity of the surface

[1]	LIU Xiaoyan, DANG Suzhen, LIU Changming, DONG Guotao. Effects of rainfall intensity on the sediment concentration in the Loess Plateau, China [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2020, 30(3): 455-467.
[2]	Yurui LI, Yi LI, Pengcan FAN, Jian SUN, Yansui LIU. Land use and landscape change driven by gully land consolidation project: A case study of a typical watershed in the Loess Plateau [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2019, 29(5): 719-729.
[3]	Yiping CHEN, Junhua WU, Hong WANG, Jifu MA, Cuicui SU, Kaibo WANG, Yi WANG. Evaluating the soil quality of newly created farmland in the hilly and gully region on the Loess Plateau, China [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2019, 29(5): 791-802.
[4]	Wenjuan HOU, Jiangbo GAO. Simulating runoff generation and its spatial correlation with environmental factors in Sancha River Basin: The southern source of the Wujiang River [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2019, 29(3): 432-448.
[5]	Jun WANG, Lina ZHONG, Wenwu ZHAO, Lingxiao YING. The influence of rainfall and land use patterns on soil erosion in multi-scale watersheds: A case study in the hilly and gully area on the Loess Plateau, China [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2018, 28(10): 1415-1426.
[6]	Haidong GAO, Zhanbin Li, Lianlian JIA, Peng Li, Guoce XU, Zongping REN, Guowei PANG, Binhua ZHAO. Capacity of soil loss control in the Loess Plateau based on soil erosion control degree [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2016, 26(4): 457-472.
[7]	Xu ZHOU, Shengtian YANG, Xiaoyan LIU, Changming LIU, Changsen ZHAO, Haigen ZHAO, Qiuwen ZHOU, Zhiwei WANG. Comprehensive analysis of changes to catchment slope properties in the high-sediment region of the Loess Plateau, 1978-2010 [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(4): 437-450.
[8]	Wangjun LI, Changhe LU. Aridity trend and response to vegetation restoration in the loess hilly region of northern Shaanxi Province [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(3): 289-300.
[9]	Liying GUO, Liping DI, Gang LI, Qiyou LUO, Mingjie GAO. GIS-based detection of land use transformation in the Loess Plateau: A case study in Baota District, Shaanxi Province, China [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(12): 1467-1478.
[10]	Li WANG, Xinfa QIU, Peifa WANG, Xiaoying WANG, Aili LIU. Influence of complex topography on global solar radiation in the Yangtze River Basin [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2014, 24(6): 980-992.
[11]	Ya LUO, Shengtian YANG, Changsen ZHAO, Xiaoyan LIU, Changming LIU, Linna WU, Haigen ZHAO, Yichi ZHANG. The effect of environmental factors on spatial variability in land use change in the high-sediment region of China’s Loess Plateau [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2014, 24(5): 802-814.
[12]	SUN Wenyi, SHAO Quanqin, LIU Jiyuan. Soil erosion and its response to the changes of precipitation and vegetation cover on the Loess Plateau [J]. , 2013, 23(6): 1091-1106.
[13]	MA Caihong, REN Zhiyuan, LI Xiaoyan. Natural capital accounting in Xi’an City of western China during 1995-2011 [J]. , 2013, 23(6): 1123-1135.
[14]	GAO Haidong, LI Zhanbin, LI Peng, JIA Lianlian, ZHANG Xiang. Quantitative study on influences of terraced field construction and check-dam siltation on soil erosion [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2012, 22(5): 946-960.
[15]	SHAO Tianjie, ZHAO Jingbo, ZHOU Qi, DONG Zhibao, MA Yandong. Recharge sources and chemical composition types of groundwater and lake in the Badain Jaran Desert, northwestern China [J]. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2012, 22(3): 479-496 .