Hydrochemical characteristics and element contents of natural waters in Tibet, China

doi:10.1007/s11442-015-1195-6

Abstract

Abstract:

Sixty water samples (35 groundwater samples, 22 surface water samples and three hot-spring water samples) were collected at 36 points from villages and towns in Lhasa city, Nagchu (Nagqu) prefecture, Ali (Ngari) prefecture and Shigatse (Xigaze) prefecture (Tibet) in 2013 to study the hydrochemical characteristics and element contents of natural waters. The concentrations of elements were determined in the water samples and compared with the concentrations in water samples from other regions, such as southeast Qinghai, south Xinjiang, east Sichuan and west Tibet. The hydrochemical species in different areas were also studied. Water in most parts of Tibet reaches the requirements of the Chinese national standard and the World Health Organization international standard. The pH values of the water samples ranged from 6.75 to 8.21 and the value for the mean total dissolved solids was 225.54 mg/L. The concentration of arsenic in water from Ali prefecture exceeded the limit of both the Chinese national standard and the international standard and the concentration of fluoride in water from Shuanghu exceeded the limit of both the Chinese national standard and the international standard. The main hydrochemical species in water of Tibet is Ca (HCO₃)₂. From south to north, the main cation in water changes from Ca²⁺ to Na⁺, whereas the main anions in water change from HCO₃^- to Cl^- and SO₄^2-. The chemistry of river water and melt water from ice and snow is dominated by the rocks present at their source, whereas the chemistry of groundwater is affected by many factors. Tectonic divisions determine the concentrations of the main elements in water and also affect the hydrochemical species present.

Key words: element concentrations, hydrochemical species, water chemistry, water quality, Tibet

Yuan TIAN, Chengqun YU, Kunli LUO, Xinjie ZHA, Jianshuang WU, Xianzhou ZHANG, Runxiang NI. Hydrochemical characteristics and element contents of natural waters in Tibet, China[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(6): 669-686.

Figures/Tables 17

Figure 1

Table 1

Distribution of surface water sampling locations in Tibet"

Sample No.	Date	Latitude (°)	Longitude (°)	Elevation (m)	Sample site	Sample type
1	2013.04.27	29.566389	91.401144	4196	No.7 team, Xincang village, Dazi county	River water
2	2013.04.27	29.570000	91.393056	4287	No.7 team, Xincang village, Dazi county	Ice/snow melt
5	2013.07.13	29.604167	91.380833	3970	No.6 team, Xincang village, Dazi county	River water
6	2013.07.20	29.873056	91.093333	3972	Bailang village, Linzhou county	River water
7	2013.07.20	29.873056	91.093333	3972	Bailang village, Linzhou county	River water
8	2013.07.20	29.871667	91.092500	3954	Bailang village, Linzhou county	River water
9	2013.07.20	29.850000	91.092222	4041	Bailang village, Linzhou county	River water
12	2013.07.24	30.495000	91.069167	4317	Dangxiong field station	Ice/snow melt
14	2013.08.04	32.105833	92.285278	4645	Nyainrong, Nyainrong county	River water
15	2013.08.04	32.109722	92.302500	4634	Nyainrong, Nyainrong county	Ice/snow melt
21	2013.08.05	31.273333	92.102778	4450	Kema village, Luoma town, Nagchu	River water
26	2013.08.08	32.301111	91.868056	4683	Amdo county	River water
27	2013.08.08	32.303333	91.906944	4732	Shenkagang village, Amdo county	River water
35	2013.08.11	32.433056	89.081111	4791	Duoma township, Shuanghu county	River water
36	2013.08.11	33.206944	88.798611	4981	Shuanghu county	Ice/snow melt
38	2013.08.12	32.286944	87.901944	4754	Cuozheluoma town, Shuanghu county	River water
44	2013.08.17	31.370000	85.091667	4728	Gerze county	River water
52	2013.08.21	31.451111	80.120556	4675	Alzadar county	River water
53	2013.08.21	30.970278	81.285000	4679	Baga town, Burang county	Ice/snow melt
54	2013.08.22	30.776389	81.613611	4625	Huoer town, Burang county	Ice/snow melt
57	2013.08.22	29.088611	87.637778	4048	Lhatse county	River water
58	2013.18.23	29.278889	88.879167	3777	Shigatse	River water

Table 1

Table 2

Distribution of groundwater sampling locations in Tibet"

Sample number	Date	Latitude (°)	Longitude (°)	Elevation (m)	Sample site	Depth (m)
3	2013.04.28	29.642406	91.180731	3666	Tibet University, Lhasa	-
4	2013.04.28	29.642950	91.180108	3666	Tibet University, Lhasa	6
10	2013.07.23	30.476389	91.099722	4297	Damxung county	5
11	2013.07.23	30.477500	91.103056	4281	Damxung county	30
13	2013.08.03	31.475908	92.062089	4521	Nagchu town, Nagqu county	-
16	2013.08.04	32.110000	92.303611	4612	Nyainrong	10
17	2013.08.04	31.465556	92.062778	4508	Nagchu town, Nagchu	10
18	2013.08.05	31.468611	92.059167	4534	Nagchu town, Nagchu	-
19	2013.08.05	31.271944	92.158611	4471	Kema village, Luoma town, Nagqu county	10
20	2013.08.05	31.271944	92.160000	4439	Kema village, Luoma town, Nagqu county	5
22	2013.08.05	31.469167	92.047500	4523	Nagchu town, Nagqu county	27
23	2013.08.05	31.275833	92.105278	4459	Nagqu field station, Nagqu county	10
24	2013.08.06	31.471944	92.047500	4506	Nagqu Agriculture Bureau, Nagqu county	-
25	2013.08.07	32.264050	91.681160	4685	Amdo county	-
28	2013.08.09	31.405278	90.835278	4606	Baila town, Baingoin county	6
29	2013.08.09	31.395000	90.007778	4703	Baingoin county	15
30	2013.08.10	31.523333	89.741111	4576	Mendang town, Baingoin county	4
31	2013.08.10	32.390000	89.218889	4703	Duoma town, Shuanghu county (40ºC)	-
32	2013.08.10	32.386667	89.149167	4701	Duoma township, Shuanghu county (50ºC)	-
33	2013.08.10	32.388056	89.149722	4708	Duoma township, Shuanghu county (60ºC)	-
34	2013.08.10	32.384444	89.145278	4705	Duoma town, Shuanghu county	15
37	2013.08.12	33.233056	88.352222	4811	Jiacuo, Shuanghu county	4
39	2013.08.13	31.786111	87.234722	4553	Nyima county	-
40	2013.08.15	31.876944	86.061667	4797	Asuo town, Nyima county	6
41	2013.08.15	31.253056	86.014722	4726	Juncang town, Nyima county	8
42	2013.08.16	31.263333	85.563056	4690	Cishi town, Cuoqin county	10
43	2013.08.16	31.018056	85.153889	4649	Cuoqin county	10
45	2013.08.17	32.098611	84.878889	4433	Dongco, Gerze county	-
46	2013.08.17	32.300000	84.055278	4447	Gerze county	11
47	2013.08.18	32.040697	83.669022	4398	Marm, Gerze county	5
48	2013.08.19	32.371667	82.891111	4474	Wenbudangsang town, Geji county	-
49	2013.08.19	32.388333	81.143333	4542	Geji county	5
50	2013.08.20	32.503333	80.090000	4308	Seng-ge Kambab	-
51	2013.08.21	31.481389	79.801111	3755	Tholing, Zanda county	35
55	2013.08.22	29.652169	84.181464	4602	Laozhongba town, Zhongba county	6
56	2013.08.22	29.419006	86.724014	4632	Sangsang town, Ngamring county	10
59	2013.18.23	29.346667	89.635833	3752	Dazhu village, Shigatse	15
60	2013.08.24	29.676389	91.344722	3699	Dazi county Lhasa field station	30

Table 2

Figure 2

Table 3

Table 4

Hydrochemical characteristics and element contents in groundwater samples from Tibet"

Sample number	pH	E_h (mV)	E_c(μs/ cm)	TDS (mg/L)	TH (mg/L)	Ca²⁺ (mg/L)	Mg²⁺ (mg/L)	Na⁺ (mg/L)	K⁺ (mg/L)	HCO₃^- (mg/L)	SO₄^2- (mg/L)	Cl^- (mg/L)	SiO₂ (mg/L)
3	7.28	262	250	125	119	38.1	5.6	7.0	1.3	91.5	21.3	8.5	12.7
4	7.31	244	261	131	124	38.6	6.5	7.4	1.5	85.4	27.2	9.5	9.6
10	6.95	245	279	139	134	39.9	8.1	10.5	1.5	103.7	10.4	15.8	16.9
11	7.11	233	161	81	83	24.3	5.3	3.2	1.0	64.1	6.4	10.0	11.1
13	7.10	252	1587	793	605	131.4	66.5	152.2	7.8	485.1	156.0	182.1	10.0
16	7.37	213	600	300	320	112.3	9.4	13.7	1.8	280.7	29.6	26.6	10.6
17	7.28	230	1399	699	563	102.4	73.8	112.0	4.0	515.6	143.7	152.8	9.0
18	7.81	205	404	202	165	31.7	20.6	33.7	3.7	155.6	44.1	16.3	6.8
19	7.37	220	467	233	237	69.1	15.4	19.7	3.2	192.2	35.3	18.1	25.5
20	6.93	235	458	229	227	61.9	17.4	18.6	4.1	167.8	46.0	16.2	33.1
22	7.07	243	2480	124	667	151.4	69.2	292.0	13.6	167.1	95.5	860.6	12.6
23	7.34	222	732	366	216	52.2	20.5	103.2	5.0	378.3	44.3	32.0	9.4
24	7.20	220	1055	528	445	134.0	26.4	77.6	5.4	387.5	94.5	89.7	15.4
25	7.37	207	554	277	282	69.2	26.1	23.3	2.9	259.3	49.5	17.2	9.6
28	7.86	191	337	168	169	33.2	20.6	15.8	1.5	198.3	12.0	10.5	10.6
29	7.56	210	804	402	389	126.2	17.5	34.5	3.6	405.8	52.7	15.6	15.4
30	7.79	195	307	154	148	32.6	15.9	16.7	2.5	61.0	19.3	65.0	10.1
31	6.75	245	1999	1000	472	144.4	26.7	363.3	20.8	970.2	86.4	35.3	25.9
32	7.46	226	4360	2180	182	48.7	14.5	1171.0	53.4	2785.6	196.3	57.5	31.5
33	7.19	220	2970	1487	183	57.3	9.5	732.3	33.8	1424.8	137.8	40.1	89.9
34	7.55	180	972	486	315	81.6	26.5	131.5	8.5	585.8	43.0	18.1	22.9
37	7.77	189	693	346	336	79.6	32.8	35.3	7.4	231.9	146.6	40.9	9.3
39	7.89	187	669	334	169	26.1	25.0	98.1	5.6	195.3	64.6	50.7	13.7
40	7.84	193	540	270	224	56.8	19.8	45.2	6.5	286.8	49.5	21.6	11.6
41	7.89	185	340	170	171	59.5	5.3	16.4	1.8	146.4	9.5	39.9	15.2
42	7.64	201	814	407	368	102.5	26.7	43.7	4.8	106.8	154.5	119.7	17.4
43	7.93	193	266	133	134	36.5	10.2	10.0	3.0	109.8	24.8	19.4	16.7
45	7.55	208	793	397	428	100.3	42.6	33.3	4.2	347.8	93.0	37.8	16.6
46	7.73	199	628	314	210	38.1	27.5	71.0	4.0	207.5	76.0	51.4	17.4
47	7.64	223	72	36	315	51.4	44.9	59.8	16.2	205.9	122.1	79.0	36.8
48	7.73	202	433	217	206	44.3	23.0	24.4	3.5	183.1	49.8	25.1	12.0
49	7.81	199	270	135	107	35.7	4.3	21.0	2.7	85.4	29.9	21.6	17.3
50	7.62	208	578	289	243	66.2	18.6	42.6	3.9	231.9	48.8	44.0	17.2
51	7.81	202	311	155	163	40.2	15.0	10.2	2.5	97.6	53.0	13.6	13.5
55	7.46	230	770	385	362	124.1	12.4	18.2	2.3	238.0	39.9	86.7	13.7
56	7.55	222	457	229	233	69.8	14.1	12.0	1.2	112.9	36.2	61.9	15.6
59	7.81	223	300	150	178	29.9	24.7	3.3	0.7	137.3	5.5	17.7	21.1
60	7.72	233	211	106	107	35.7	4.4	5.7	1.5	42.7	26.9	27.7	11.9

Table 4

Table 5

Table 6

Concentrations of trace elements in groundwater samples from Tibet"

Sample number	Li (μg/L)	Sr (mg/L)	B (mg/L)	Zn (μg/L)	Se (μg/L)	F (mg/L)	U (μg/L)	Rb (μg/L)	Ba (μg/L)	Co (μg/L)	Cs (μg/L)	Ga (μg/L)	V (μg/L)
3	48.9	0.15	0.18	55.80	0.00	0.09	2.39	6.08	6.49	0.05	5.45	0.30	0.15
4	50.3	0.15	0.20	7.68	0.00	0.12	2.41	6.49	11.98	0.06	9.06	0.58	0.09
10	2.97	0.15	0.13	1.16	0.00	0.04	0.30	0.09	33.48	0.07	0.02	1.66	-0.08
11	1.15	0.09	0.02	21.54	0.00	0.06	0.21	0.07	25.74	0.04	0.16	1.33	-0.16
13	105	1.03	0.37	7.14	0.04	0.38	5.54	4.49	87.75	0.58	0.99	4.22	0.38
16	12.7	0.27	0.15	3.40	0.00	0.08	1.95	0.57	64.37	0.31	0.03	3.10	0.21
17	95.3	1.40	0.49	1.47	0.05	0.48	5.83	0.88	24.06	0.41	0.02	1.07	0.32
18	54.4	0.31	0.31	0.99	0.03	0.26	2.15	5.88	21.20	0.07	2.06	0.98	0.32
19	60.6	0.29	0.18	2.06	0.01	0.43	1.49	4.53	18.29	0.10	0.03	0.85	-0.27
20	85.0	0.27	0.18	10.43	0.00	0.27	0.24	5.68	53.84	0.65	0.02	2.54	-0.26
22	79.8	0.80	0.36	4.40	0.05	0.22	4.09	9.31	71.36	0.36	0.64	3.12	2.19
23	121.77	0.28	0.41	3.24	0.00	0.33	0.93	2.87	8.80	0.06	0.03	0.38	-0.04
24	24.6	0.45	0.32	2.00	0.03	0.10	2.93	1.01	60.78	0.34	0.01	2.70	0.20
25	39.9	0.88	0.22	4.79	0.08	0.19	1.65	2.14	73.71	0.09	0.04	3.24	-0.12
28	10.4	0.25	0.21	24.22	0.07	0.20	1.48	0.38	42.85	0.06	0.01	1.92	0.34
29	37.4	0.63	0.22	22.15	0.05	0.19	22.77	0.46	41.98	0.23	0.01	1.81	-0.06
30	35.7	0.26	0.31	2.90	0.05	0.33	1.44	1.19	26.70	0.05	0.04	1.18	0.13
31	745	1.64	2.92	18.34	0.04	3.05	0.42	82.40	94.15	0.28	85.13	4.50	-0.58
32	2658	1.96	8.61	1.94	0.13	7.24	0.06	190.64	75.57	0.10	428.09	3.33	0.10
33	1495	1.77	5.35	1.80	0.06	3.56	0.31	125.09	102.19	0.05	144.69	4.69	-0.22
34	295	0.86	1.18	2.47	0.15	1.34	1.45	33.29	104.00	0.11	48.34	4.75	0.81
37	29.9	0.47	0.60	6.76	0.75	0.27	13.46	2.93	33.63	0.10	15.38	1.44	-0.09
39	96.5	0.51	1.62	6.16	0.22	0.32	4.74	1.46	43.89	0.13	0.07	1.96	2.06
40	142	0.67	1.05	1.76	0.16	0.33	3.75	18.55	104.26	0.09	7.65	4.64	3.42
41	18.98	0.23	0.43	2.12	0.08	0.14	1.93	0.35	43.80	0.08	0.07	1.97	0.13
42	64.7	0.71	1.06	3.44	0.10	0.26	11.61	0.57	28.43	0.20	0.08	1.23	0.13
43	27.7	0.19	0.77	2.91	0.09	0.24	1.30	1.19	11.28	0.05	0.11	0.49	-0.23
45	55.0	0.79	0.60	2.59	0.24	0.39	2.71	3.17	25.84	0.09	1.66	1.11	-0.13
46	49.5	0.55	1.11	0.99	0.49	0.33	2.29	1.09	24.86	0.05	0.07	1.09	0.55
47	458	0.45	2.11	428.69	0.53	1.20	9.08	51.88	23.02	0.08	119.46	0.98	1.84
48	116	0.79	0.96	68.11	0.57	0.19	1.86	14.48	36.96	0.05	70.10	1.64	0.28
49	33.0	0.16	1.39	15.97	0.14	0.14	1.26	5.20	12.03	0.05	0.99	0.52	0.43
50	159	0.41	2.32	6.95	0.09	0.14	3.41	6.22	30.70	0.17	6.99	1.33	0.34
51	30.3	0.41	0.58	5.94	0.24	0.11	1.72	2.06	39.20	0.04	0.77	1.72	-0.01
55	14.2	0.46	0.07	3.80	0.11	0.04	2.27	0.25	9.52	0.15	0.04	0.39	-0.23
56	7.49	0.33	0.10	3.35	0.90	0.06	0.86	0.68	17.18	0.10	0.78	0.76	-0.25
59	3.12	0.12	0.09	1.19	0.18	0.07	0.43	0.43	6.84	0.04	0.45	0.28	-0.29
60	31.9	0.13	0.15	24.38	0.18	0.11	1.14	3.75	6.17	0.04	5.46	0.26	-0.47

Table 6

Table 7

Table 8

Concentrations of toxic elements in groundwater samples from Tibet"

Sample number	Al (μg/L)	As (μg/L)	Be (μg/L)	Cr (μg/L)	Cu (μg/L)	Fe (μg/L)	Mn (μg/L)	Mo (μg/L)	Ni (μg/L)	Pb (μg/L)	Se (μg/L)
3	0.19	1.96	-0.02	10.35	-0.04	98.39	0.07	0.96	0.77	0.01	0.00
4	0.46	3.10	-0.04	10.63	0.02	100.00	0.02	0.80	0.82	0.00	0.00
10	99.64	0.48	0.06	9.66	0.23	96.70	0.39	0.10	0.86	0.01	0.00
11	0.55	1.06	-0.04	8.46	-0.01	59.88	0.83	0.08	0.53	0.03	0.00
13	0.95	0.38	0.00	13.97	1.55	344.86	242.76	0.59	5.75	0.09	0.04
16	1.10	0.54	0.04	18.13	1.07	257.68	0.11	0.16	2.71	0.01	0.00
17	7.28	0.58	-0.01	12.06	0.88	238.17	0.09	0.39	2.61	0.01	0.05
18	33.97	5.09	0.05	3.48	0.62	78.13	0.30	0.67	1.60	0.02	0.03
19	0.75	0.64	-0.01	7.97	0.19	148.33	0.23	0.24	1.46	0.01	0.01
20	0.49	0.61	-0.07	16.32	0.04	143.27	514.97	0.21	1.84	0.01	0.00
22	1.15	1.05	-0.03	6.78	3.35	320.31	19.15	0.41	5.85	0.02	0.05
23	0.49	0.63	-0.03	4.62	0.50	112.17	0.55	0.15	1.13	0.01	0.00
24	0.30	0.47	0.02	4.87	0.84	269.51	0.11	0.10	3.46	0.01	0.03
25	0.26	1.20	-0.08	2.86	0.31	140.86	0.03	0.51	1.40	0.00	0.08
28	1.19	0.87	0.00	2.98	0.15	65.05	0.08	0.20	0.75	0.01	0.07
29	4.38	3.21	-0.08	3.77	0.59	246.08	0.55	0.91	2.45	0.02	0.05
30	0.44	1.54	-0.02	2.00	0.12	62.22	0.06	0.99	0.66	0.02	0.05
31	0.67	46.19	0.14	60.90	2.51	333.99	2.82	2.25	4.22	0.02	0.04
32	2.13	333.92	0.07	19.04	7.56	125.91	5.81	0.11	1.64	0.07	0.13
33	0.63	219.94	0.23	33.60	4.51	110.92	6.62	0.30	1.03	0.02	0.06
34	0.47	2.46	-0.03	9.48	0.82	155.70	0.20	0.58	1.60	0.02	0.15
37	0.45	1.29	0.00	3.63	0.94	156.06	0.06	2.19	1.79	0.01	0.75
39	0.62	6.81	-0.04	6.45	1.16	45.64	0.07	2.19	0.74	0.01	0.22
40	1.35	4.42	-0.05	1.84	0.53	107.69	0.04	0.59	1.25	0.01	0.16
41	1.27	3.77	-0.03	1.49	0.17	107.52	0.00	0.47	1.10	0.01	0.08
42	0.67	2.22	0.05	1.64	0.84	190.51	0.01	2.36	2.07	0.05	0.10
43	0.49	4.46	-0.04	1.20	0.13	65.08	0.01	0.54	0.65	0.01	0.09
45	0.47	1.28	0.04	3.68	0.04	188.20	0.04	1.06	1.89	0.01	0.24
46	0.43	3.03	-0.02	7.20	0.29	64.15	0.42	1.02	0.70	0.01	0.49
47	0.31	163.55	-0.06	1.50	0.74	89.59	0.94	6.02	0.98	0.02	0.53
48	0.68	57.96	-0.10	2.07	0.20	80.98	0.02	1.28	0.81	0.01	0.57
49	7.98	56.21	-0.03	0.81	0.06	64.30	0.00	0.98	0.65	0.01	0.14
50	0.91	17.48	0.02	1.61	0.30	122.64	0.13	0.59	1.82	0.01	0.09
51	0.63	1.09	-0.03	1.62	0.00	74.42	0.02	0.72	0.73	0.01	0.24
55	0.86	1.51	-0.04	5.66	0.12	238.44	0.11	0.36	2.18	0.01	0.11
56	21.45	3.56	-0.03	2.78	0.25	133.97	2.34	0.64	1.44	0.02	0.90
59	0.97	2.50	0.01	4.65	0.09	53.98	0.00	0.18	0.92	0.02	0.18
60	1.55	1.87	-0.03	1.02	0.00	65.49	0.62	1.34	0.75	0.01	0.18

Table 8

Table 9

Figure 3

Table 10

Figure 4

Figure 5

Table 11

Figure 6

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	Tibet	Southern Xinjiang	Tongtian River	Qinghai Lake Basin	Huanglong	Maoxian county	Zamtang county	Yarlung Zangbo River between Lhasa-Nyingchi	Shegyla Mountain
Number of samples	57	154	9	75	9	63	423	62	9
pH	7.55	7.64	8.09	8.09	6.59	7.7	7.43	7.74	7.46
K⁺	3.09	17.87	6.77	1.87	0.4	2.36	14.25	3.16	0.14
Na⁺	34.93	336.97	118.02	36.42	3.14	19.12		4.89	0.03
Ca²⁺	55.25	90.1	51.77	37.38	253.78	70.36	33.77	29.74	1.6
Mg²⁺	18.69	73.78	18.82	16.04	20.94	28.38	10.4	5.56	3.82
Cl^-	47.67	509.41	179.88	47	0.73	7.37	3.9	3.87	7.41
SO₄^2-	54.68	429.08	83.34	39.35	23.2	119.6	8.05	25.83	62.52
HCO₃^-	169.67	260.28	170.63	183.37	777.44	226.27	171.21	90.28	33.9
Reference	This study	Liu et al. (2014), Pang et al. (2010), Zhang et al. (1995)	Su et al. (1987)	Xu et al. (2010)	Wang et al. (2009)	Du (2011)	Cao (2011)	Liu (2011)	Ren et al. (2002)

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