Journal of Geographical Sciences ›› 2015, Vol. 25 ›› Issue (4): 451-484.doi: 10.1007/s11442-015-1180-0
• Orginal Article • Previous Articles Next Articles
Chengjin WANG1(), César DUCRUET2, Wei WANG1,3
Received:
2014-02-10
Accepted:
2014-06-30
Online:
2015-04-15
Published:
2015-04-15
About author:
Author: Wang Chengjin (1975-), Associate Professor, specialized in economic geography and transport geography. E-mail:
Supported by:
Chengjin WANG, César DUCRUET, Wei WANG. Evolution, accessibility and dynamics of road networks in China from 1600 BC to 1900 AD[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(4): 451-484.
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Table 1
Road lengths in each province in each historical period in China"
Province | Shang | Western Zhou | Spring and Autumn | Qin | Western Han | Eastern Han | Wei-Jin | Sui and Tang | Song | Yuan | Ming | Qing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beijing | 144.7 | 136.1 | 233.4 | 247.4 | 339.6 | 287.4 | 255.6 | 252.8 | 174.1 | 332.3 | 361.4 | |
Tianjin | 30.8 | 210.1 | 38.0 | 182.2 | 103.4 | 54.7 | 54.7 | 236.8 | 226.1 | 252.4 | ||
Shanxi | 1013.9 | 526.0 | 1029.4 | 1540.5 | 1364.8 | 1761.4 | 2029.9 | 2639.6 | 1985.9 | 1296.9 | 1801.3 | 2101.0 |
Hebei | 801.3 | 1276.3 | 1214.7 | 1155.9 | 1623.5 | 2490.5 | 1929.4 | 1896.6 | 2282.8 | 2147.2 | 2371.4 | |
Inner Mongola | 495.2 | 367.4 | 1283.3 | 781.8 | 1574.2 | 1293.7 | 1969.5 | 1723.7 | 1491.8 | 4230.6 | ||
Liaoning | 571.1 | 343.9 | 579.8 | 1241.2 | 876.2 | 1725.4 | 1036.7 | 1140.5 | 1631.5 | 1637.2 | ||
Jilin | 50.2 | 50.2 | 454.7 | 121.3 | 820.6 | 617.7 | 537.2 | 490.2 | 1169.4 | |||
Heilongjiang | 86.3 | 1564.2 | 403.8 | 133.1 | 1748.1 | |||||||
Shanghai | 100.3 | 37.8 | 37.8 | |||||||||
Jiangsu | 164.8 | 205.6 | 733.3 | 619.7 | 715.3 | 616.2 | 859.2 | 1063.4 | 1115.2 | 969.4 | 1111.4 | 832.9 |
Zhejiang | 152.7 | 216.0 | 444.7 | 630.8 | 517.9 | 1097.9 | 1164.6 | 1294.2 | 1202.5 | 1495.2 | ||
Fujian | 482.9 | 292.9 | 264.2 | 308.2 | 876.4 | 1532.8 | 1547.3 | 1356.0 | 1004.9 | |||
Anhui | 327.3 | 312.2 | 393.0 | 652.5 | 781.2 | 1423.3 | 1206.7 | 1395.2 | 1702.3 | 1677.0 | 2002.3 | 1667.1 |
Jiangxi | 711.5 | 955.3 | 1138.4 | 971.1 | 1147.9 | 1389.6 | 1595.0 | 1747.0 | 1349.0 | |||
Shandong | 912.1 | 1229.9 | 1879.0 | 1403.6 | 1204.5 | 2083.1 | 2063.7 | 1573.9 | 1505.6 | 2015.2 | 1613.6 | 1877.0 |
Henan | 1388.8 | 1183.2 | 2144.4 | 1559.4 | 2344.7 | 3086.0 | 2510.3 | 2612.1 | 2860.1 | 2364.3 | 2536.0 | 1992.8 |
Hubei | 36.2 | 474.8 | 541.5 | 788.5 | 1285.1 | 1302.6 | 1640.2 | 1977.2 | 1884.2 | 1449.5 | 1485.1 | |
Hunan | 507.8 | 834.7 | 953.0 | 728.2 | 1144.2 | 1235.4 | 1246.2 | 1323.9 | 1377.6 | |||
Guangdong | 311.5 | 615.7 | 615.4 | 599.2 | 1416.4 | 1412.3 | 1449.9 | 1529.5 | 1417.6 | |||
Guangxi | 576.1 | 1022.2 | 1339.0 | 599.2 | 1932.7 | 980.1 | 1839.8 | 1983.5 | 2113.0 | |||
Sichuan | 559.3 | 1396.8 | 1415.2 | 1694.8 | 2642.6 | 2519.4 | 3056.7 | 2521.0 | 2147.6 | |||
Chongqing | 119.6 | 89.0 | 223.2 | 498.9 | 115.2 | 622.1 | 222.4 | 223.2 | ||||
Guizhou | 163.8 | 336.8 | 711.0 | 1039.9 | 1023.5 | 1000.7 | 1578.2 | 1425.4 | ||||
Yunnan | 412.2 | 982.6 | 1000.5 | 1329.0 | 1757.2 | 1371.6 | 2673.4 | 1748.8 | 2342.9 | |||
Tibet | 662.3 | 676.1 | 1650.8 | 1217.9 | 1578.9 | |||||||
Ningxia | 553.6 | 523.6 | 601.0 | 896.3 | 1030.4 | 784.2 | 482.4 | 653.0 | ||||
Qinghai | 1521.9 | 2173.4 | 3023.4 | 2103.0 | 1755.2 | 2649.0 | ||||||
Shaanxi | 873.3 | 1246.7 | 1466.2 | 1867.8 | 2874.6 | 2586.1 | 3396.2 | 3631.9 | 3918.4 | 2321.6 | 2064.9 | 2728.3 |
Gansu | 270.2 | 86.3 | 218.3 | 734.7 | 2160.7 | 2090.8 | 3147.9 | 3049.3 | 3646.3 | 2929.5 | 2763.3 | 2941.3 |
Xinjiang | 3347.6 | 3381.8 | 3580.4 | 4501.4 | 1783.9 | 3912.7 | 1981.6 | 5511.3 |
Table 2
Cities connected by road network in China in the various dynasties and their level of development."
Dynasty | Shang | Western Zhou | Spring and Autumn | Qin | Western Han | Eastern Han | Wei-Jin | Tang | Song | Yuan | Ming | Qing | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
County | Edges/e | 180 | 140 | 291 | 333 | 548 | 674 | 722 | 831 | 927 | 808 | 754 | 901 |
Vertices/v | 175 | 133 | 276 | 321 | 526 | 629 | 666 | 758 | 843 | 738 | 678 | 815 | |
Proportion | 7.54 | 5.73 | 11.89 | 13.82 | 22.65 | 27.09 | 28.68 | 32.64 | 36.3 | 31.78 | 29.2 | 35.1 | |
Beta/β | 1.029 | 1.053 | 1.054 | 1.037 | 1.042 | 1.072 | 1.084 | 1.096 | 1.1 | 1.095 | 1.112 | 1.106 | |
Loop index/μ | 6 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 23 | 46 | 57 | 74 | 85 | 71 | 77 | 87 | |
Alpha/α | 0.0174 | 0.0307 | 0.0293 | 0.0204 | 0.022 | 0.0367 | 0.043 | 0.049 | 0.0506 | 0.0483 | 0.057 | 0.0535 | |
1-α | 0.9826 | 0.9693 | 0.9707 | 0.9796 | 0.978 | 0.9633 | 0.957 | 0.951 | 0.9494 | 0.9517 | 0.943 | 0.9465 | |
Gamma/γ | 0.347 | 0.356 | 0.354 | 0.348 | 0.349 | 0.358 | 0.362 | 0.366 | 0.367 | 0.366 | 0.372 | 0.369 | |
Proportion | 2.31 | 1.68 | 3.74 | 5.37 | 18.47 | 19.79 | 23.31 | 29 | 29.49 | 27.16 | 23.41 | 34.47 | |
Prefectural city | Node number | 39 | 28 | 66 | 79 | 127 | 162 | 141 | 185 | 194 | 190 | 160 | 140 |
Proportion | 11.68 | 8.38 | 19.76 | 23.65 | 38.02 | 48.5 | 42.22 | 55.39 | 58.08 | 56.89 | 47.9 | 41.92 | |
Edges/e | 75 | 39 | 106 | 100 | 171 | 266 | 256 | 314 | 403 | 300 | 279 | 301 | |
Beta/β | 1.923 | 1.393 | 1.606 | 1.266 | 1.346 | 1.642 | 1.816 | 1.697 | 2.077 | 1.579 | 1.744 | 2.150 | |
Loop index/μ | 37 | 12 | 41 | 22 | 45 | 105 | 116 | 130 | 210 | 111 | 120 | 162 | |
Alpha/α | 0.5068 | 0.2353 | 0.3228 | 0.1438 | 0.1807 | 0.3292 | 0.4188 | 0.3562 | 0.5483 | 0.296 | 0.381 | 0.5891 | |
Gamma/γ | 0.6757 | 0.5 | 0.5521 | 0.4329 | 0.456 | 0.5542 | 0.6139 | 0.5719 | 0.6997 | 0.5319 | 0.5886 | 0.7271 | |
Provincial city | Edges/e | 9 | 2 | 21 | 39 | 57 | 131 | 115 | 200 | 256 | 187 | 253 | 263 |
Vertices/v | 7 | 3 | 8 | 12 | 18 | 22 | 20 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 27 | 26 | |
Beta/β | 1.286 | 0.667 | 2.625 | 3.250 | 3.167 | 5.955 | 5.750 | 8.333 | 9.846 | 6.679 | 9.370 | 10.115 | |
Loop index/μ | 3 | 0 | 14 | 28 | 40 | 110 | 96 | 177 | 231 | 160 | 227 | 238 | |
Alpha/α | 0.3333 | 0.0000 | 1.2727 | 1.4737 | 1.2903 | 2.8205 | 2.7429 | 4.1163 | 4.9149 | 3.1373 | 4.6327 | 5.0638 | |
Gamma/γ | 0.6000 | 0.6667 | 1.1667 | 1.3000 | 1.1875 | 2.1833 | 2.1296 | 3.0303 | 3.5556 | 2.3974 | 3.3733 | 3.6528 |
Table 3
Major accessibility indicators of the road network in China in each period"
Indicator | Shang | Western Zhou | Spring and Autumn | Qin | Western Han | Eastern Han | Wei-Jin | Sui | Song | Yuan | Ming | Qing | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total travel distance/10000 km | 2227 | 979 | 6320 | 13439 | 42618 | 57833 | 63590 | 91601 | 105788 | 86579 | 67555 | 111474 | |
Average travel distance per node/ 10000 km | 727 | 553 | 830 | 1304 | 1540 | 1462 | 1434 | 1594 | 1489 | 1590 | 1470 | 1678 | |
Maximum travel distance/10000 km | 28.3 | 11.6 | 43.8 | 77.0 | 202.3 | 254.8 | 253.5 | 298.7 | 299.9 | 308.5 | 239.7 | 315.7 | |
Minimum travel distance/10000 km | 7.8 | 5.0 | 16.5 | 26.1 | 50.0 | 56.9 | 61.5 | 78.6 | 83.8 | 78.1 | 66.9 | 90.8 | |
Peripheral | Node name | Wuyuan | Gaomi | Tonghua | Fuyang | Shufu | Artux | Artux | Artux | Hotan | Kashi | Hotan | Yuepuhu |
Location coefficient | 2.223 | 1.574 | 1.914 | 1.839 | 2.497 | 2.772 | 2.655 | 2.472 | 2.39 | 2.63 | 2.406 | 2.308 | |
Core | Node name | Yanshi | Luo- yang | Jinan | Luo- yang | Luo- yang | Luo- yang | Luo- yang | Luo- yang | Kai- feng | Zhengzhou | Zheng- zhou | Zheng- zhou |
Location coefficient | 0.615 | 0.685 | 0.719 | 0.623 | 0.617 | 0.619 | 0.645 | 0.65 | 0.668 | 0.666 | 0.671 | 0.664 | |
Locational coefficient > 1 | Node number | 68 | 56 | 97 | 127 | 193 | 229 | 256 | 260 | 350 | 272 | 297 | 289 |
Rate in total county | 2.93 | 2.41 | 4.18 | 5.47 | 8.31 | 9.86 | 11.02 | 11.2 | 15.07 | 11.71 | 12.79 | 12.45 | |
Locational coefficient < 1 | Node number | 107 | 77 | 179 | 194 | 333 | 400 | 410 | 498 | 493 | 466 | 381 | 526 |
Rate in total county | 4.61 | 3.32 | 7.71 | 8.35 | 14.34 | 17.23 | 17.66 | 21.45 | 21.23 | 20.07 | 16.41 | 22.65 |
Table 4
Geographical regions and major natural obstacles to road expansion in China"
Type | Name of obstacle | Location or covering scope |
---|---|---|
Geographical region | Central Plains | Most parts of Henan, south Hebei, southeast Shanxi, east Shaanxi and west Shandong |
Guanzhong Plains | Alluvial plains of Weihe River in Shaanxi | |
Sanjiang Plains | Alluvial plains of Heilongjiang River, Ussuri River and Songhua River in east Heilongjiang | |
Natural obstacle | Yangtze River | Largest river in China; its valley includes Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Chongqing and Sichuan |
Huaihe River | One large river in East China; its valley includes Henan, Hubei, Anhui and Jiangsu | |
Qinling Mountains | E-W trend mountains at the border between Shaanxi and Sichuan | |
Wuling Mountains | E-W trend mountains at the border between Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, Guangxi | |
Taihang Mountains | N-S trend mountains at the border of Shanxi and Hebei | |
Hengduan Mountains | N-S trend mountains at the southeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau | |
Greater Khingan Mountains | NE-SW trend mountains in west Heilongjiang and northeastern Inner Mongolian Plateau | |
Funiu Mountain | E-W trend mountains in west Henan | |
Lesser Khingan Mountains | NE-SW trend mountains in central and north Heilongjiang | |
Wuyi Mountains | NE-SW trend mountains in west Fujian | |
Kunlun-Altun-Qilian Mountains | Mountains along the north edge of the Tibetan Plateau at the border between Xinjiang and Tibet, and between Qinghai and Gansu | |
Changbai Mountains | NE-SW trend mountains in west Jilin | |
Daba Mountains | E-W trend mountains in northeast Sichuan and northwest Hubei | |
Jundu Mountains | Mountains in Beijing | |
Dalou Mountains | NE-SW trend mountains in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau | |
Loess Plateau | One plateau in northwest China involving Shanxi, north Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia | |
Tibetan Plateau | Largest plateau in China involving Tibet, west Sichuan, north Yunnan, Qinghai, and south Xinjiang | |
Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau | One plateau in southwest China involving east Yunnan, Guizhou and west Guangxi |
Table 5
Capital cities in each dynasty in China"
Dynasty | Capital (State) | Ethnicity of governor |
---|---|---|
Shang | Luoyang, Zhengzhou, Anyang | - |
Western Zhou | Xi’an, Luoyang | - |
Spring and Autumn | Zibo (Qi), Jingzhou (Chu), Beijing (Yan), Xinzheng (Han), Handan (Zhao), Kaifeng (Wei), Xi’an (Qin) | - |
Qin | Xi’an | - |
Western Han | Xi’an, Luoyang | Han Chinese |
Eastern Han | Luoyang, Xi’an | Han Chinese |
Three Kingdoms | Luoyang (Wei), Xi’an (Wei), Chengdu (Shu), Nanjing (Wu) | Han Chinese |
Western Jin | Luoyang, Xi’an | Han Chinese |
Eastern Jin | Nanjing | Han Chinese |
Southern and Northern | Nanjing, Luoyang, Taiyuan, Xi’an, Handan, Datong | Han Chinese; Sienpi; |
Sui-Tang | Xi’an, Luoyang | Han Chinese |
Five Dynasties and Ten States | Kaifeng (late Liang, late Jin, late Han, late Zhou), Luoyang (late Tang) | Han Chinese; Khitans; Tebitan; Hui |
Song | Kaifeng (Northern Song), Hangzhou (Southern Song), Ningcheng and Datong (Liao and Jin), Liaoyang (Liao and Jin) and Beijing, Balin (Liao), Yinchuan and Wuwei (Western Xia), Huining (Jin), Dali and Kunming (Nanzhao) | Han Chinese; Jurchen; Khitans; Tangusts; Mongolian; Tebitan |
Yuan | Beijing, Zhenglan, Zhangbei, Datong | Mongolian |
Ming | Nanjing, Beijing | Han Chinese |
Qing | Liaoyang, Shenyang, Beijing | Manchu |
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