Evolution, accessibility and dynamics of road networks in China from 1600 BC to 1900 AD

doi:10.1007/s11442-015-1180-0

Abstract

Abstract:

Before the emergence of modern modes of transport, the traditional road infrastructure was the major historical means of carrying out nationwide socio-economic exchange. However, the history of transport infrastructure has received little attention from researchers. Given this background, the work reported here examined the long-term development of transport networks in China. The national road network was selected for study and the 3500 years from 1600 BC to 1900 AD was chosen as the study period. Indicators were designed for the maturity level of road networks and an accessibility model was developed for the paths of the shortest distance. The evolution of the road network in China since the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC) was described and its major features were summarized to reveal long-term regularities. The maturity level of the road network and its accessibility was assessed and regions with good and poor networks were identified. The relationship between China’s natural, social, and economic systems and the road network were discussed. Our analysis shows that the road network in China has a number of long-term regularities. The continuously expanding road network follows a path of inland expansion especially towards the border areas. However, its coverage and accessibility are characterized by a core-peripheral configuration, which has close relationships with, not only the natural conditions, but also national defense and warfare. The centralization of national power, national land governance, postal transport, the transport of specialized cargos, and international trade are also related to the development of the road network. This research draws attention to the evolving regularities of transport networks.

Key words: China, road networks, historical evolution, accessibility, dynamic mechanisms

Chengjin WANG, César DUCRUET, Wei WANG. Evolution, accessibility and dynamics of road networks in China from 1600 BC to 1900 AD[J].Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2015, 25(4): 451-484.

Figures/Tables 9

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Table 1

Road lengths in each province in each historical period in China"

Province	Shang	Western Zhou	Spring and Autumn	Qin	Western Han	Eastern Han	Wei-Jin	Sui and Tang	Song	Yuan	Ming	Qing
Beijing	144.7		136.1	233.4	247.4	339.6	287.4	255.6	252.8	174.1	332.3	361.4
Tianjin	30.8		210.1		38.0	182.2	103.4	54.7	54.7	236.8	226.1	252.4
Shanxi	1013.9	526.0	1029.4	1540.5	1364.8	1761.4	2029.9	2639.6	1985.9	1296.9	1801.3	2101.0
Hebei	801.3		1276.3	1214.7	1155.9	1623.5	2490.5	1929.4	1896.6	2282.8	2147.2	2371.4
Inner Mongola	495.2			367.4	1283.3	781.8	1574.2	1293.7	1969.5	1723.7	1491.8	4230.6
Liaoning			571.1	343.9	579.8	1241.2	876.2	1725.4	1036.7	1140.5	1631.5	1637.2
Jilin			50.2		50.2	454.7	121.3	820.6	617.7	537.2	490.2	1169.4
Heilongjiang								86.3	1564.2	403.8	133.1	1748.1
Shanghai										100.3	37.8	37.8
Jiangsu	164.8	205.6	733.3	619.7	715.3	616.2	859.2	1063.4	1115.2	969.4	1111.4	832.9
Zhejiang			152.7	216.0	444.7	630.8	517.9	1097.9	1164.6	1294.2	1202.5	1495.2
Fujian				482.9	292.9	264.2	308.2	876.4	1532.8	1547.3	1356.0	1004.9
Anhui	327.3	312.2	393.0	652.5	781.2	1423.3	1206.7	1395.2	1702.3	1677.0	2002.3	1667.1
Jiangxi				711.5	955.3	1138.4	971.1	1147.9	1389.6	1595.0	1747.0	1349.0
Shandong	912.1	1229.9	1879.0	1403.6	1204.5	2083.1	2063.7	1573.9	1505.6	2015.2	1613.6	1877.0
Henan	1388.8	1183.2	2144.4	1559.4	2344.7	3086.0	2510.3	2612.1	2860.1	2364.3	2536.0	1992.8
Hubei	36.2		474.8	541.5	788.5	1285.1	1302.6	1640.2	1977.2	1884.2	1449.5	1485.1
Hunan				507.8	834.7	953.0	728.2	1144.2	1235.4	1246.2	1323.9	1377.6
Guangdong				311.5	615.7	615.4	599.2	1416.4	1412.3	1449.9	1529.5	1417.6
Guangxi				576.1	1022.2	1339.0	599.2	1932.7	980.1	1839.8	1983.5	2113.0
Sichuan				559.3	1396.8	1415.2	1694.8	2642.6	2519.4	3056.7	2521.0	2147.6
Chongqing					119.6	89.0	223.2	498.9	115.2	622.1	222.4	223.2
Guizhou					163.8	336.8	711.0	1039.9	1023.5	1000.7	1578.2	1425.4
Yunnan				412.2	982.6	1000.5	1329.0	1757.2	1371.6	2673.4	1748.8	2342.9
Tibet								662.3	676.1	1650.8	1217.9	1578.9
Ningxia					553.6	523.6	601.0	896.3	1030.4	784.2	482.4	653.0
Qinghai							1521.9	2173.4	3023.4	2103.0	1755.2	2649.0
Shaanxi	873.3	1246.7	1466.2	1867.8	2874.6	2586.1	3396.2	3631.9	3918.4	2321.6	2064.9	2728.3
Gansu	270.2	86.3	218.3	734.7	2160.7	2090.8	3147.9	3049.3	3646.3	2929.5	2763.3	2941.3
Xinjiang					3347.6	3381.8	3580.4	4501.4	1783.9	3912.7	1981.6	5511.3

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Figure 4

Table 4

Geographical regions and major natural obstacles to road expansion in China"

Type	Name of obstacle	Location or covering scope
Geographical region	Central Plains	Most parts of Henan, south Hebei, southeast Shanxi, east Shaanxi and west Shandong
	Guanzhong Plains	Alluvial plains of Weihe River in Shaanxi
	Sanjiang Plains	Alluvial plains of Heilongjiang River, Ussuri River and Songhua River in east Heilongjiang
Natural obstacle	Yangtze River	Largest river in China; its valley includes Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Chongqing and Sichuan
	Huaihe River	One large river in East China; its valley includes Henan, Hubei, Anhui and Jiangsu
	Qinling Mountains	E-W trend mountains at the border between Shaanxi and Sichuan
	Wuling Mountains	E-W trend mountains at the border between Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, Guangxi
	Taihang Mountains	N-S trend mountains at the border of Shanxi and Hebei
	Hengduan Mountains	N-S trend mountains at the southeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau
	Greater Khingan Mountains	NE-SW trend mountains in west Heilongjiang and northeastern Inner Mongolian Plateau
	Funiu Mountain	E-W trend mountains in west Henan
	Lesser Khingan Mountains	NE-SW trend mountains in central and north Heilongjiang
	Wuyi Mountains	NE-SW trend mountains in west Fujian
	Kunlun-Altun-Qilian Mountains	Mountains along the north edge of the Tibetan Plateau at the border between Xinjiang and Tibet, and between Qinghai and Gansu
	Changbai Mountains	NE-SW trend mountains in west Jilin
	Daba Mountains	E-W trend mountains in northeast Sichuan and northwest Hubei
	Jundu Mountains	Mountains in Beijing
	Dalou Mountains	NE-SW trend mountains in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau
	Loess Plateau	One plateau in northwest China involving Shanxi, north Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia
	Tibetan Plateau	Largest plateau in China involving Tibet, west Sichuan, north Yunnan, Qinghai, and south Xinjiang
	Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau	One plateau in southwest China involving east Yunnan, Guizhou and west Guangxi

Table 4

Table 5

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Dynasty		Shang	Western Zhou	Spring and Autumn	Qin	Western Han	Eastern Han	Wei-Jin	Tang	Song	Yuan	Ming	Qing
County	Edges/e	180	140	291	333	548	674	722	831	927	808	754	901
	Vertices/v	175	133	276	321	526	629	666	758	843	738	678	815
	Proportion	7.54	5.73	11.89	13.82	22.65	27.09	28.68	32.64	36.3	31.78	29.2	35.1
	Beta/β	1.029	1.053	1.054	1.037	1.042	1.072	1.084	1.096	1.1	1.095	1.112	1.106
	Loop index/μ	6	8	16	13	23	46	57	74	85	71	77	87
	Alpha/α	0.0174	0.0307	0.0293	0.0204	0.022	0.0367	0.043	0.049	0.0506	0.0483	0.057	0.0535
	1-α	0.9826	0.9693	0.9707	0.9796	0.978	0.9633	0.957	0.951	0.9494	0.9517	0.943	0.9465
	Gamma/γ	0.347	0.356	0.354	0.348	0.349	0.358	0.362	0.366	0.367	0.366	0.372	0.369
	Proportion	2.31	1.68	3.74	5.37	18.47	19.79	23.31	29	29.49	27.16	23.41	34.47
Prefectural city	Node number	39	28	66	79	127	162	141	185	194	190	160	140
	Proportion	11.68	8.38	19.76	23.65	38.02	48.5	42.22	55.39	58.08	56.89	47.9	41.92
	Edges/e	75	39	106	100	171	266	256	314	403	300	279	301
	Beta/β	1.923	1.393	1.606	1.266	1.346	1.642	1.816	1.697	2.077	1.579	1.744	2.150
	Loop index/μ	37	12	41	22	45	105	116	130	210	111	120	162
	Alpha/α	0.5068	0.2353	0.3228	0.1438	0.1807	0.3292	0.4188	0.3562	0.5483	0.296	0.381	0.5891
	Gamma/γ	0.6757	0.5	0.5521	0.4329	0.456	0.5542	0.6139	0.5719	0.6997	0.5319	0.5886	0.7271
Provincial city	Edges/e	9	2	21	39	57	131	115	200	256	187	253	263
	Vertices/v	7	3	8	12	18	22	20	24	26	28	27	26
	Beta/β	1.286	0.667	2.625	3.250	3.167	5.955	5.750	8.333	9.846	6.679	9.370	10.115
	Loop index/μ	3	0	14	28	40	110	96	177	231	160	227	238
	Alpha/α	0.3333	0.0000	1.2727	1.4737	1.2903	2.8205	2.7429	4.1163	4.9149	3.1373	4.6327	5.0638
	Gamma/γ	0.6000	0.6667	1.1667	1.3000	1.1875	2.1833	2.1296	3.0303	3.5556	2.3974	3.3733	3.6528

Indicator		Shang	Western Zhou	Spring and Autumn	Qin	Western Han	Eastern Han	Wei-Jin	Sui	Song	Yuan	Ming	Qing
Total travel distance/10000 km		2227	979	6320	13439	42618	57833	63590	91601	105788	86579	67555	111474
Average travel distance per node/ 10000 km		727	553	830	1304	1540	1462	1434	1594	1489	1590	1470	1678
Maximum travel distance/10000 km		28.3	11.6	43.8	77.0	202.3	254.8	253.5	298.7	299.9	308.5	239.7	315.7
Minimum travel distance/10000 km		7.8	5.0	16.5	26.1	50.0	56.9	61.5	78.6	83.8	78.1	66.9	90.8
Peripheral	Node name	Wuyuan	Gaomi	Tonghua	Fuyang	Shufu	Artux	Artux	Artux	Hotan	Kashi	Hotan	Yuepuhu
Peripheral	Location coefficient	2.223	1.574	1.914	1.839	2.497	2.772	2.655	2.472	2.39	2.63	2.406	2.308
Core	Node name	Yanshi	Luo- yang	Jinan	Luo- yang	Luo- yang	Luo- yang	Luo- yang	Luo- yang	Kai- feng	Zhengzhou	Zheng- zhou	Zheng- zhou
Core	Location coefficient	0.615	0.685	0.719	0.623	0.617	0.619	0.645	0.65	0.668	0.666	0.671	0.664
Locational coefficient > 1	Node number	68	56	97	127	193	229	256	260	350	272	297	289
Locational coefficient > 1	Rate in total county	2.93	2.41	4.18	5.47	8.31	9.86	11.02	11.2	15.07	11.71	12.79	12.45
Locational coefficient < 1	Node number	107	77	179	194	333	400	410	498	493	466	381	526
Locational coefficient < 1	Rate in total county	4.61	3.32	7.71	8.35	14.34	17.23	17.66	21.45	21.23	20.07	16.41	22.65

Dynasty	Capital (State)	Ethnicity of governor
Shang	Luoyang, Zhengzhou, Anyang	-
Western Zhou	Xi’an, Luoyang	-
Spring and Autumn	Zibo (Qi), Jingzhou (Chu), Beijing (Yan), Xinzheng (Han), Handan (Zhao), Kaifeng (Wei), Xi’an (Qin)	-
Qin	Xi’an	-
Western Han	Xi’an, Luoyang	Han Chinese
Eastern Han	Luoyang, Xi’an	Han Chinese
Three Kingdoms	Luoyang (Wei), Xi’an (Wei), Chengdu (Shu), Nanjing (Wu)	Han Chinese
Western Jin	Luoyang, Xi’an	Han Chinese
Eastern Jin	Nanjing	Han Chinese
Southern and Northern	Nanjing, Luoyang, Taiyuan, Xi’an, Handan, Datong	Han Chinese; Sienpi;
Sui-Tang	Xi’an, Luoyang	Han Chinese
Five Dynasties and Ten States	Kaifeng (late Liang, late Jin, late Han, late Zhou), Luoyang (late Tang)	Han Chinese; Khitans; Tebitan; Hui
Song	Kaifeng (Northern Song), Hangzhou (Southern Song), Ningcheng and Datong (Liao and Jin), Liaoyang (Liao and Jin) and Beijing, Balin (Liao), Yinchuan and Wuwei (Western Xia), Huining (Jin), Dali and Kunming (Nanzhao)	Han Chinese; Jurchen; Khitans; Tangusts; Mongolian; Tebitan
Yuan	Beijing, Zhenglan, Zhangbei, Datong	Mongolian
Ming	Nanjing, Beijing	Han Chinese
Qing	Liaoyang, Shenyang, Beijing	Manchu

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